Development, ChildNCT03631992

Snacks, Smiles and Taste Preferences

A study testing Low Sweet and Regular Sweet in people with Development, Child, run by Temple University at 2 sites in United States.

Completed

Finished. The study has ended and is not enrolling. Results may be posted on the official record.

Official record

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Trial summary

The research study is designed is to determine whether children's acceptance of low sugar snacks, most preferred level of sweet and salty taste, and dietary intake of added sugars changes after repeated exposure to snacks lower in sweetness when compared to the control group. Read more about this study

Who is it for?: Ages 3 to 6 yearsHealthy volunteers can take part
Conditions the study is for: Development, Child
What is being tested?: Low Sweet and Regular Sweet
Type of treatment: Lifestyle or therapy programme
Could I receive a placebo?: Yes, some participants may receive a placebo
How many people: 172 participants
Where: 2 sitesUnited States
Study dates: 9 Oct 2018to 18 Oct 2024
Phase: Interventional
Are there results?: Yes, posted in the registrySummary in the doctors' view

Key requirements

Who can take part, as listed by the sponsor. Only the study team can confirm whether you are eligible, so take this list to your doctor.

Ages 3 to 6 years
All sexes
Healthy volunteers accepted
Child

Who may be able to join

English speaking mother 18 years or older
Mother has primary responsibility for the eligible child's care
Mother has primary responsibility for feeding the eligible child
Mother is responsible for purchasing food for the family
Mother must be willing to refrain from eating food and beverages high in added sugars in the eligible child's presence for the duration of the study

Who cannot join

Child is in full-day daycare or school
Child is currently on a special diet (e.g. weight management programs)
Child has severe food allergies (e.g. gluten, peanuts)
Child has medical conditions know to affect growth or eating (e.g. diabetes, cystic fibrosis)
Mother is a current smoker

Trial locations and contacts

2 sites in 1 country.

United States2 sites

Monell Chemical Senses Center
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104
Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19140

Other trials in United States

About this study

Official title: Downshifting Sweet Preference and Added Sugar Intake During Snacking

Read the detailed description

This is a longitudinal, randomized, within- and between- subject study of children and their mothers to determine whether children's repeated exposure to snacks lower in sweetness and mothers' educational lessons about dental health and nutrition (intervention group) affects children's acceptance of low sugar snacks, most preferred level of sweet and salty taste, and dietary intake of added sugars when compared to the control group.

Conditions: Development, Child
Being tested: Low Sweet, Regular Sweet
Keywords: Children, Sugar, Taste, Snacking, Biomarker, Mothers

What participants receive

What participants receive. In a randomised study each person is assigned to one group by chance.

Low SweetBehavioural
Children in the experimental group get repeated exposure to lower sweet snacks and mothers get education lessons on dental care, reading food labels, portion size, and nutrition.
Regular SweetBehavioural
Children in sham comparator get typical snacks and mothers get education lessons on portion size, physical activity, sleep, and screen time.

Study groups in NCT03631992
Study group	Role	What they receive
Low Sweet	Experimental	Children in intervention group will be provided with daily snacks lower in added sugar and sweetness and their mothers will receive educational lessons on dental care, reading food labels, and nutrition that support the goals of reducing "sweet" exposure and added sugar intake. Receives: Behavioral: Low Sweet
Regular Sweet	Sham comparator	Children in the regular sweet control group will be provided with common snacks fed to children of this age and mothers will be given education lessons on portion size, physical activity, sleep, screen time and, at the end of the trial, dental care. Receives: Behavioral: Regular Sweet

What is being measured

The primary outcome is the main question the study is designed to answer.

Children's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d)
Children's dietary intake of added sugar (tsp/d) was determined from Automated Self-Administered Recall System (ASA24) at baseline, mid-trial, and end of trial.
Measured: From T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up)
Caregiver's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d)
Caregivers' dietary intake of added sugar (tsp/d) was determined from Automated Self-Administered Recall System (ASA24) at baseline, mid-trial, and end of trial.
Measured: At T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up)
Children's Liking of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 1 FOODS)
Children's indicated liking of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), assessed on separate occasions. Using hedonic face scales, children indicated their like or dislike for each food. Liking data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis shows the count of and percentage of children who liked SET 1 STRAWBERRY-BANANA YOGURT AND APPLE SLICES at the end of the intervention.
Measured: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention). Liking assessments of Set 1 and Set 2 foods were performed at separate laboratory visits.
Children's Liking of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 2 FOODS)
Children's indicated liking of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), assessed on separate occasions. Using hedonic face scales, children indicated their like or dislike for each food. Liking data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis shows the number and percentage of children who liked SET 2 HUMMUS AND BABY CARROTS at the end of the intervention.
Measured: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention). Liking assessments of Set 1 and Set 2 foods were performed at separate laboratory visits.
Children's Intake (g) of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 1 FOODS)
Children's intake of novel snacks in grams using weighed intake methods; higher intake and consummatory responses indicate greater acceptance. Children's ad libitum intake of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods was assessed on separate occasion (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), a protocol that directly followed assessment of liking. Weighed intakes were used to measure children's intake of each food in grams. Intake data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis presents INTAKE in GRAMS of SET 1 STRAWBERRY-BANANA YOGURT AND APPLE SLICES at the END OF TRIAL.
Measured: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention)
Children's Intake (g) of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 2 FOODS)
Children's intake of novel snacks in grams using weighed intake methods; higher intake and consummatory responses indicate greater acceptance. Children's ad libitum intake of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods was assessed on separate occasion (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), a protocol that directly followed assessment of liking. Weighed intakes were used to measure children's intake of each food in grams. Intake data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis presents INTAKE in GRAMS of SET 2 HUMMUS and BABY CARROTS at the END OF TRIAL.
Measured: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention)

Secondary outcomes (6)

Children's Body Mass Index Z-scores (BMIz)
Children's height was measured in cm and weight in kg; these measures were used to calculate child BMI (kg/m2). Child BMI z-scores were calculated with CDC 2000 growth charts using the LMS method, which standardizes a child's BMI relative to a reference population of U.S. children of the same age and sex. The BMI z-score indicates how many standard deviations the child's BMI is above or below the CDC age- and sex-specific average, with higher positive values indicating higher relative body size compared to children of the same age and sex in the CDC reference population. This analysis compares child BMIz by arm at the END OF TRIAL.
Measured: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention)
Children's Stable Isotope Biomarker of Added Sugar Intake
Carbon stable isotopes were assessed using ratio mass spectrometry methods using hair samples collected at the start (T0) and end of 4-month intervention (T4).
Measured: From T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T3 (4 month visit=end of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Parenting Feeding Styles
Mothers will complete the 19-item Caregivers Feeding Styles Questionnaire [CFSQ]. Each item is scored from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Mean item scores were used to assess parental demandingness (12 items) and responsiveness (7 items), with a possible range of 1 to 5 for each scale where higher scores indicate higher levels of the construct. This measure was collected and checked at baseline to ensure that there were no differences by group/arm.
Measured: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Children's Appetitive Drive
Mothers will complete the 26-item Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire [CEBQ]. Each item is scored from 1 (never) to 5 (always) and are averaged and categorized into aspects of child eating (e.g., enjoyment of food, food responsiveness, satiety responsiveness, emotional overeating; emotional undereating, food fussiness); higher numbers reflect more of the behavior. This measure was collected and checked at baseline to ensure that there were no differences by group/arm.
Measured: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Children's Behavioral Activation
Children's behavioral activation was measured using the Behavioral Activation Scale, a 20-item self-report questionnaire assessing children's sensitivity to reward and approach motivation across 3 subscales: drive (4 items), fun seeking (4 items), and reward responsiveness (5 items). Each question is answered using a 4-point Likert-type scale, with possible scores ranging from 1 (not true) -4 (very true). Scores for each of the three subscales are calculated as the sum of all items on the subscale, with higher scores indicating higher levels of the construct. Possible scores ranges for subscales are as follows: drive (4-16); fun seeking (4-16), and reward responsiveness (5-20). This measure was collected and checked at baseline to ensure that there were no differences by group/arm.
Measured: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Mothers' Palatable Eating Motivation
Mothers will complete the 19-item Palatable Eating Motive Scales (PEMS) questionnaire; each item is scored from 1 (almost never/never exhibits behavior) to 5 (almost always/always exhibits behavior). Scores are averaged and categorized to reflect motives for intake of palatable foods (e.g., to socialize, cope, fit in or conform, for reward enhancement); higher numbers reflect more of the motivation.This measure was collected and checked at baseline to ensure that there were no differences by group/arm.
Measured: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)

Timeline

From the start of the study to its completion; the mark is today. Estimated dates are the sponsor’s plan.

9 Oct 201818 Oct 2024

First posted15 Aug 2018
Study start9 Oct 2018
Primary completion18 Oct 2024
Study completion18 Oct 2024

Resources

Official record on ClinicalTrials.govThe registry entry this page is built from, with its full change history.
Posted resultsParticipant flow, outcome measures and adverse events reported by the sponsor.
Publications (11)Papers the sponsor has linked to this study.
Other trials for Development, ChildStudies of the same condition, open and under way.
What the trial phases meanHow a treatment moves from first tests in people to approval.

More details

For doctors and researchers: how the study is designed, who runs it, and its registry IDs.

Study design

Study type: Interventional
Phase: Phase N/A
Primary purpose: Basic science
Allocation: Randomised
Intervention model: Parallel groups
Model description: The intervention group will receive snacks lower in added sugar and sweetness (children) and educational lessons on dental care, food labels, added sugar, and portion size (mothers) whereas the control group will receive typical snacks (children) and educational lessons on portion size, sleep, screen time, and physical activity (mothers). Control group will receive the educational lessons of the intervention group at the end of the trial.
Masking: Triple blind
Who is masked: Participant, Investigator, Outcomes assessor
Enrolment: 172 participants (actual)

IDs, dates and publications

ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT03631992
Sponsor's protocol ID: 24653
Other IDs: R01DC016616
Status last verified: Jun 2026
First submitted: 29 May 2018
Last updated: 30 Jun 2026
Results posted: Yes, on ClinicalTrials.gov
Data monitoring committee: No
FDA-regulated drug: No
FDA-regulated device: No
Individual data sharing: Yes: dbGAP

Publications

Mennella JA, Lukasewycz LD, Griffith JW, Beauchamp GK. Evaluation of the Monell forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking procedure for determining sweet taste preferences across the lifespan. Chem Senses. 2011 May;36(4):345-55. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjq134. Epub 2011 Jan 12.
PubMed 21227904
Nash SH, Kristal AR, Hopkins SE, Boyer BB, O'Brien DM. Stable isotope models of sugar intake using hair, red blood cells, and plasma, but not fasting plasma glucose, predict sugar intake in a Yup'ik study population. J Nutr. 2014 Jan;144(1):75-80. doi: 10.3945/jn.113.182113. Epub 2013 Nov 6.
PubMed 24198311
Mennella JA, Finkbeiner S, Lipchock SV, Hwang LD, Reed DR. Preferences for salty and sweet tastes are elevated and related to each other during childhood. PLoS One. 2014 Mar 17;9(3):e92201. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092201. eCollection 2014.
PubMed 24637844
Wardle J, Guthrie CA, Sanderson S, Rapoport L. Development of the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2001 Oct;42(7):963-70. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00792.
PubMed 11693591
Vandeweghe L, Verbeken S, Moens E, Vervoort L, Braet C. Strategies to improve the Willingness to Taste: The moderating role of children's Reward Sensitivity. Appetite. 2016 Aug 1;103:344-352. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2016.04.017. Epub 2016 Apr 19.
PubMed 27103060
Hughes SO, Power TG, Orlet Fisher J, Mueller S, Nicklas TA. Revisiting a neglected construct: parenting styles in a child-feeding context. Appetite. 2005 Feb;44(1):83-92. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2004.08.007. Epub 2004 Nov 13.
PubMed 15604035
Sharafi M, Rawal S, Fernandez ML, Huedo-Medina TB, Duffy VB. Taste phenotype associates with cardiovascular disease risk factors via diet quality in multivariate modeling. Physiol Behav. 2018 Oct 1;194:103-112. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.05.005. Epub 2018 May 8.
PubMed 29746892
Martignon S, Gonzalez MC, Tellez M, Guzman A, Quintero IK, Saenz V, Martinez M, Mora A, Espinosa LF, Castiblanco GA. Schoolchildren's tooth brushing characteristics and oral hygiene habits assessed with video-recorded sessions at school and a questionnaire. Acta Odontol Latinoam. 2012;25(2):163-70.
PubMed 23230636
Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Lehmann-Castor SM, Yourshaw LM. Sweet preferences and analgesia during childhood: effects of family history of alcoholism and depression. Addiction. 2010 Apr;105(4):666-75. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02865.x. Epub 2010 Feb 9.
PubMed 20148789
Mennella JA, Coffman DL, Merchan MT, Croce CM, Smethers AD, Fisher JO. Exposure to low-sweet snacks and caregiver nutritional and dental health education lowered children's added sugar intake: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2026 Jul;124(1):101272. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101272. Epub 2026 Mar 13.
PubMed 41833907
Smethers AD, Fisher JO, Carney EM, Coffman DL, Mennella JA. Carbon stable isotope values in hair are associated with added sugar intake in adults but not young children: a cross-sectional study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2025 Apr;121(4):900-909. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.02.013. Epub 2025 Feb 18.
PubMed 39978470

Want to know more?

The sponsor has not listed a contact. The official record may have more details.

Talk to your doctor first and take this page with you. Only the study team can confirm whether you can join.

Questions to ask the study team

What is the study trying to find out?
What would I need to do, and how often would I visit?
Could I receive a placebo instead of the treatment?
What are the possible risks and benefits for me?
Will it cost me anything? Are travel or time paid for?
Can I keep seeing my own doctor during the study?
What happens when the study ends?

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Study at a glance

From the registry record, last updated by the sponsor on 30 Jun 2026. Recruitment status is as the sponsor reported it: confirm with the study team.

Official title: Downshifting Sweet Preference and Added Sugar Intake During Snacking
ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT03631992
Acronym / sponsor ID: 24653
Conditions: Development, Child
Keywords: Children, Sugar, Taste, Snacking, Biomarker, Mothers
Study type: Interventional
Recruitment status: Completed
Enrolment: 172 participants (actual)
Lead sponsor: Temple UniversityUniversity, hospital or other
Collaborators: Monell Chemical Senses Center, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
Study start: 9 Oct 2018 (actual)
Primary completion: 18 Oct 2024 (actual)
Study completion: 18 Oct 2024 (actual)
First posted: 15 Aug 2018 (actual)
Results: Posted 30 Jun 2026

Clinical summary

The research question as the sponsor registered it. This describes what the study plans to test, not what it found.

Detailed description

Study design

Primary purpose: Basic science
Allocation: Randomised
Intervention model: Parallel groups
Masking: Triple blind (participant, investigator, outcomes assessor)
Number of arms: 2
Model description: The intervention group will receive snacks lower in added sugar and sweetness (children) and educational lessons on dental care, food labels, added sugar, and portion size (mothers) whereas the control group will receive typical snacks (children) and educational lessons on portion size, sleep, screen time, and physical activity (mothers). Control group will receive the educational lessons of the intervention group at the end of the trial.

Arm	Type	Receives
Low Sweet	Experimental	Behavioral: Low SweetChildren in intervention group will be provided with daily snacks lower in added sugar and sweetness and their mothers will receive educational lessons on dental care, reading food labels, and nutrition that support the goals of reducing "sweet" exposure and added sugar intake.
Regular Sweet	Sham comparator	Behavioral: Regular SweetChildren in the regular sweet control group will be provided with common snacks fed to children of this age and mothers will be given education lessons on portion size, physical activity, sleep, screen time and, at the end of the trial, dental care.

Who may qualify

Ages: 3 to 6 years
Sex: All
Healthy volunteers: Accepted
Age groups: Child

Key inclusion criteria (5 listed)

English speaking mother 18 years or older
Mother has primary responsibility for the eligible child's care
Mother has primary responsibility for feeding the eligible child
Mother is responsible for purchasing food for the family
Mother must be willing to refrain from eating food and beverages high in added sugars in the eligible child's presence for the duration of the study

Key exclusion criteria (5 listed)

Child is in full-day daycare or school
Child is currently on a special diet (e.g. weight management programs)
Child has severe food allergies (e.g. gluten, peanuts)
Child has medical conditions know to affect growth or eating (e.g. diabetes, cystic fibrosis)
Mother is a current smoker

Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening; this overview does not establish that a patient qualifies. Full inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Interventions

Intervention	Type	Arms
Low SweetChildren in the experimental group get repeated exposure to lower sweet snacks and mothers get education lessons on dental care, reading food labels, portion size, and nutrition.	Behavioural	Low Sweet
Regular SweetChildren in sham comparator get typical snacks and mothers get education lessons on portion size, physical activity, sleep, and screen time.	Behavioural	Regular Sweet

Primary outcome

Children's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d)
Time frame: From T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up)
Children's dietary intake of added sugar (tsp/d) was determined from Automated Self-Administered Recall System (ASA24) at baseline, mid-trial, and end of trial.
Caregiver's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d)
Time frame: At T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up)
Caregivers' dietary intake of added sugar (tsp/d) was determined from Automated Self-Administered Recall System (ASA24) at baseline, mid-trial, and end of trial.
Children's Liking of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 1 FOODS)
Time frame: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention). Liking assessments of Set 1 and Set 2 foods were performed at separate laboratory visits.
Children's indicated liking of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), assessed on separate occasions. Using hedonic face scales, children indicated their like or dislike for each food. Liking data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis shows the count of and percentage of children who liked SET 1 STRAWBERRY-BANANA YOGURT AND APPLE SLICES at the end of the intervention.
Children's Liking of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 2 FOODS)
Time frame: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention). Liking assessments of Set 1 and Set 2 foods were performed at separate laboratory visits.
Children's indicated liking of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), assessed on separate occasions. Using hedonic face scales, children indicated their like or dislike for each food. Liking data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis shows the number and percentage of children who liked SET 2 HUMMUS AND BABY CARROTS at the end of the intervention.
Children's Intake (g) of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 1 FOODS)
Time frame: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention)
Children's intake of novel snacks in grams using weighed intake methods; higher intake and consummatory responses indicate greater acceptance. Children's ad libitum intake of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods was assessed on separate occasion (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), a protocol that directly followed assessment of liking. Weighed intakes were used to measure children's intake of each food in grams. Intake data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis presents INTAKE in GRAMS of SET 1 STRAWBERRY-BANANA YOGURT AND APPLE SLICES at the END OF TRIAL.
Children's Intake (g) of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 2 FOODS)
Time frame: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention)
Children's intake of novel snacks in grams using weighed intake methods; higher intake and consummatory responses indicate greater acceptance. Children's ad libitum intake of two sets of lower sweetness intervention snack foods was assessed on separate occasion (Set 1: Strawberry-banana yogurt, apple slices; Set 2: hummus and baby carrots), a protocol that directly followed assessment of liking. Weighed intakes were used to measure children's intake of each food in grams. Intake data were not obtained during the COVID-19 lockdown. Set 1 foods were discontinued following the lockdown in a modified version of the protocol moved from in person visits to remote assessments. As such, outcome analyses of children's liking of snacks low in sweetness are reported on complete cases (Set 1 foods: n=40 children; Set 2 foods: n=54 children). This analysis presents INTAKE in GRAMS of SET 2 HUMMUS and BABY CARROTS at the END OF TRIAL.

6 secondary outcomes

Children's Body Mass Index Z-scores (BMIz)
Time frame: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention)
Children's Stable Isotope Biomarker of Added Sugar Intake
Time frame: From T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T3 (4 month visit=end of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Parenting Feeding Styles
Time frame: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Children's Appetitive Drive
Time frame: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Children's Behavioral Activation
Time frame: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)
Monitoring of Individual Differences in Mothers' Palatable Eating Motivation
Time frame: T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention)

Results and safety

Results posted to the registry on 30 Jun 2026, as reported by the sponsor. Figures are copied from the record, not re-analysed. Full results on ClinicalTrials.gov.

Participant flow

Group	Started	Completed
Low Sweet	70	52
Regular Sweet	70	60

Primary outcome: Children's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d)

Time frame: From T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up). Least squares mean (Standard Error). Unit: tsp/d

Measure	Low Sweet n = 35	Regular Sweet n = 35
Baseline	12.6 (1.4)	13.7 (1.4)
MId-trial	6.0 (1.5)	15.3 (1.4)
End of trial	6.1 (1.5)	16.2 (1.4)
1 month follow up	8.9 (1.5)	15.7 (1.4)

Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Mean Difference (Baseline): -1.0 (95% CI -4.5 to 2.5), p = 0.96, Mixed Models Analysis
Low Sweet: Mean Difference (Mid-trial): -9.3 (95% CI -13.0 to -5.5), p <0.001, Mixed Models Analysis
Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Mean Difference (Final Values): -10.1 (95% CI -14.0 to -6.2), p <0.001, Mixed Models Analysis

Population analysed: 70 participants (35 caregiver-child dyads) were randomized to each arm (Low Sweet, Regular Sweet) for a total of 140 participants (70 caregiver-child dyads); primary outcomes are reported here on children's daily intake of added sugars.(tsp/d) by arm (Low Sweet, n=35 children. Regular Sweet n=35 children)

Primary outcome: Caregiver's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d)

Time frame: At T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up). Least squares mean (Standard Error). Unit: tsp/d

Measure	Low Sweet n = 35	Regular Sweet n = 35
Baseline	17.3 (2.5)	17.7 (2.5)
MId-trial	5.2 (2.7)	22.8 (2.6)
End of trial	8.2 (2.8)	19.2 (2.7)
1 month follow up	10.6 (2.8)	23.3 (2.7)

Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Mean Difference (Baseline): 0.99 (95% CI -6.8 to 6.0), Mixed Models Analysis
Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Mean Difference (Mid-trial): -17.6 (95% CI -24.5 to -10.7), p <0.001, Mixed Models Analysis
Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Median Difference (Final Values): -11.0 (95% CI -18.0 to -3.9), p = 0.01, Mixed Models Analysis

Population analysed: 70 participants (35 caregiver-child dyads) were randomized to each arm (Low Sweet, Regular Sweet) for a total of 140 participants (70 caregiver-child dyads); primary outcomes are reported here on caregivers' daily intake of added sugars.(tsp/d) by arm (Low Sweet, n=35 children. Regular Sweet n=35 children)

Primary outcome: Children's Liking of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 1 FOODS)

Time frame: At T1 (baseline visit at start of intervention) and T3 (4 month= end of intervention). Liking assessments of Set 1 and Set 2 foods were performed at separate laboratory visits.. Count of participants. Unit: Participants

Measure	Low Sweet n = 19	Regular Sweet n = 21
Strawberry banana yogurt: Liked	17	19
Strawberry banana yogurt: Disliked	2	2
Apple slices: Liked	16	18
Apple slices: Disliked	3	3

Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Slope: 3.8 (95% CI -4.8 to 12.4), p = 0.37, Mixed Models Analysis
Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Slope: -1.8 (95% CI -7.4 to 3.8), p = 0.53, Mixed Models Analysis

Primary outcome: Children's Liking of Snacks Low in Sweetness (SET 2 FOODS)

Measure	Low Sweet n = 26	Regular Sweet n = 28
Hummus: Liked	10	13
Hummus: Disliked	16	15
Baby Carrots: Liked	12	16
Baby Carrots: Disliked	14	12

Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Slope: -1.2 (95% CI -3.2 to 0.8), p = 1.0, Mixed Models Analysis
Low Sweet vs Regular Sweet: Slope: -1.1 (95% CI -3.3 to 1.1), p = 0.29, Mixed Models Analysis

6 secondary outcomes are reported in the full results.

Adverse events

Time frame: During the 4 month intervention and 1 month follow up; reported for 140 participants (70 mothers, 70 children) representing 70 mother-child dyads. Other adverse events reported at 0% frequency or more

Group	Serious adverse events	Other adverse events	Deaths
Low Sweet	0 of 70 (0%)	0 of 70 (0%)	0 of 70
Regular Sweet	0 of 70 (0%)	0 of 70 (0%)	0 of 70

Loading the posted results from ClinicalTrials.gov…

Research links

Official record on ClinicalTrials.govLast updated by the sponsor 30 Jun 2026.
Posted resultsParticipant flow, baseline, all outcome measures and adverse events.
Background: PubMed 21227904Mennella JA, Lukasewycz LD, Griffith JW, Beauchamp GK. Evaluation of the Monell forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking procedure for determining sweet taste preferences across the lifespan. Chem Senses. 2011 May;36(4):345-55. doi: 10.1093/chemse/bjq134. Epub 2011 Jan 12.
Background: PubMed 24198311Nash SH, Kristal AR, Hopkins SE, Boyer BB, O'Brien DM. Stable isotope models of sugar intake using hair, red blood cells, and plasma, but not fasting plasma glucose, predict sugar intake in a Yup'ik study population. J Nutr. 2014 Jan;144(1):75-80. doi: 10.3945/jn.113.182113. Epub 2013 Nov 6.
Background: PubMed 24637844Mennella JA, Finkbeiner S, Lipchock SV, Hwang LD, Reed DR. Preferences for salty and sweet tastes are elevated and related to each other during childhood. PLoS One. 2014 Mar 17;9(3):e92201. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092201. eCollection 2014.
Background: PubMed 11693591Wardle J, Guthrie CA, Sanderson S, Rapoport L. Development of the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2001 Oct;42(7):963-70. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00792.
Background: PubMed 27103060Vandeweghe L, Verbeken S, Moens E, Vervoort L, Braet C. Strategies to improve the Willingness to Taste: The moderating role of children's Reward Sensitivity. Appetite. 2016 Aug 1;103:344-352. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2016.04.017. Epub 2016 Apr 19.
Background: PubMed 15604035Hughes SO, Power TG, Orlet Fisher J, Mueller S, Nicklas TA. Revisiting a neglected construct: parenting styles in a child-feeding context. Appetite. 2005 Feb;44(1):83-92. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2004.08.007. Epub 2004 Nov 13.
Background: PubMed 29746892Sharafi M, Rawal S, Fernandez ML, Huedo-Medina TB, Duffy VB. Taste phenotype associates with cardiovascular disease risk factors via diet quality in multivariate modeling. Physiol Behav. 2018 Oct 1;194:103-112. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.05.005. Epub 2018 May 8.
Background: PubMed 23230636Martignon S, Gonzalez MC, Tellez M, Guzman A, Quintero IK, Saenz V, Martinez M, Mora A, Espinosa LF, Castiblanco GA. Schoolchildren's tooth brushing characteristics and oral hygiene habits assessed with video-recorded sessions at school and a questionnaire. Acta Odontol Latinoam. 2012;25(2):163-70.
Background: PubMed 20148789Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Lehmann-Castor SM, Yourshaw LM. Sweet preferences and analgesia during childhood: effects of family history of alcoholism and depression. Addiction. 2010 Apr;105(4):666-75. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02865.x. Epub 2010 Feb 9.
Derived from this study: PubMed 41833907Mennella JA, Coffman DL, Merchan MT, Croce CM, Smethers AD, Fisher JO. Exposure to low-sweet snacks and caregiver nutritional and dental health education lowered children's added sugar intake: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2026 Jul;124(1):101272. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101272. Epub 2026 Mar 13.
Derived from this study: PubMed 39978470Smethers AD, Fisher JO, Carney EM, Coffman DL, Mennella JA. Carbon stable isotope values in hair are associated with added sugar intake in adults but not young children: a cross-sectional study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2025 Apr;121(4):900-909. doi: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.02.013. Epub 2025 Feb 18.
Individual participant dataSharing planned: Yes. dbGAP

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Referral and contact

AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals. Contact the study team or a site listed below; they decide who can take part. This study is not recruiting at the moment.

Julia Mennella, PhD principal investigator

Monell Chemical Senses Center

Jennifer O Fisher, PhD principal investigator

Temple University

2 sites in 1 country: see every site and its status.

Questions about this trial

What is this clinical trial studying?

A study testing Low Sweet and Regular Sweet in people with Development, Child, run by Temple University at 2 sites in United States.

The full registered description is in the About this study section and the official record.

Who may be eligible to take part?

The sponsor lists 5 inclusion and 5 exclusion criteria. Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening, so read the full criteria and contact a listed site.

Is this clinical trial currently recruiting?

The record says: finished, as of the sponsor's last update on 30 Jun 2026. Status can change between updates, so confirm with the study contact before making plans.

Where is the study taking place?

The record lists 2 sites in United States. Whether a site is taking part right now should be confirmed with that site. See every site.

What are the possible benefits and risks?

They depend on the study and the treatment, and no study can promise a benefit. Some participants in this study may receive a placebo. The study team explains the known risks during informed consent, before anyone joins; the record itself does not list them.

Are results available for this study?

Yes. Results are posted in the registry (first posted 30 Jun 2026). A summary is in the For doctors view, and the full results are on ClinicalTrials.gov.

How can a doctor refer a patient or contact the research team?

The record lists no contact. The official record names the sponsor, who can be asked directly. AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals.

What does the primary outcome measure?

Children's Dietary Intake of Energy From Added Sugar (Tsp/d) (time frame: From T1 (baseline Temple visit at start of intervention) to T2 (Month 2, mid-trial), T3 (Month 4, end of intervention) and T4 (Month 5, which is 1 month post-intervention follow-up)). The study lists 6 primary outcomes in all. It is what the study was designed to measure, not a finding.

Where can I read the original study information?

On the ClinicalTrials.gov record for NCT03631992, which also lists 11 linked publications.

Does a listing mean the treatment is approved or proven to work?

No. A listing means the study is registered. It does not show that the treatment is safe, works, or is approved by a regulator.

How often is this information updated?

AzTrials copies changed records from ClinicalTrials.gov every night and reloads the whole registry every week. The sponsor last updated this record on 30 Jun 2026.