Developmental Language DisorderNCT06026124
Retrieval-Based Word Learning in Developmental Language Disorder During Book Reading
A study testing Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition and Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study condition in people with Developmental Language Disorder and Specific Language Impairment, run by Purdue University at 2 sites in United States.
Trial summary
Children with developmental language disorder (DLD; also referred to as specific language impairment) experience a significant deficit in language ability that is longstanding and harmful to the children's academic, social, and eventual economic well-being. Read more about this study
- Who is it for?
- Ages 48 to 71 monthsHealthy volunteers can take part
- Conditions the study is for
- Developmental Language Disorder, Specific Language Impairment, Language Development
- What is being tested?
- Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition and Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study condition
- Type of treatment
- Lifestyle or therapy programme
- Could I receive a placebo?
- No, everyone receives an active treatment
- How many people
- 27 participants
- Where
- 2 sitesUnited States
- Study dates
- 31 Oct 2022to 17 Sep 2024
- Phase
- Interventional
- Are there results?
- Yes, posted in the registrySummary in the doctors' view
Key requirements
Who can take part, as listed by the sponsor. Only the study team can confirm whether you are eligible, so take this list to your doctor.
- Ages 48 to 71 months
- All sexes
- Healthy volunteers accepted
- Child
Who may be able to join
- a significant deficit in language ability (language test score below cutoff for best sensitivity/specificity) or documented age-appropriate language ability.
- normal hearing
- no evidence of neurological damage or disease
- scores on tests of nonverbal intelligence above the intellectual disability range
- not within Autistic range on Autism screening test
- native English speaker (can be bilingual)
Who cannot join
- failed hearing screening
- known neurological damage or disease
- scores on tests of nonverbal intelligence below the intellectual disability range (standard score less than 75)
- autism spectrum disorder
- non-native English speaker
Trial locations and contacts
2 sites in 1 country.
United States2 sites
Purdue University's SLHS laboratories (8445 Keystone Crossing)
Indianapolis, Indiana, 46240
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907
About this study
Children with developmental language disorder (DLD; also referred to as specific language impairment) experience a significant deficit in language ability that is longstanding and harmful to the children's academic, social, and eventual economic well-being. Word learning is one of the principal weaknesses in these children. This project focuses on the word learning abilities of four- and five-year-old children with DLD. The goal of the project is to build on the investigators' previous work to determine whether, as has been found thus far, special benefits accrue when these children must frequently recall newly introduced words during the course of learning. In this study, the investigators seek to replicate the advantage that repeated retrieval holds over simple exposure to the words and to demonstrate an increase in children's absolute levels of learning by implementing retrieval practice in the context of a story book.
Read the detailed description
Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) affects language learning in an estimated 7% of children. Although much of the research literature has emphasized difficulties learning grammar, children with DLD also have major deficits in vocabulary. In recent work, the investigators have been examining the benefit of retrieval practice to enhance word learning and retention in preschoolers with DLD. The rationale behind this work is grounded in the growing literature in the field of cognitive psychology which shows that repeated practice in retrieving information results in greater long-term retention than continuous study of that information without opportunities for retrieval. In addition, retrieval practice that occurs after a delay-or "spacing" between study of a word and subsequent recall attempts-can lead to stronger effects.
The investigators have explored the benefits of retrieval practice for preschoolers with DLD and with typical language development (TD), showing that recall and retention for novel words (nouns, adjectives, verbs) were greater when learned using repeated spaced retrieval (RSR) than when learned using repeated study only. Despite benefitting from RSR, children with DLD still showed lower levels of recall than children with TD.
In the current study, the investigators aim to increase accuracy levels by embedding the same words and retrieval schedules used in earlier studies into story contexts. Artist-illustrated stories incorporate illustrations of the unfamiliar plants and animals that served as referents of novel nouns in an earlier study. Sixteen children with DLD will be recruited for this study along with 16 children with TD matched on chronological age. Using a within-subjects design, children will learn eight novel nouns, four embedded in each story. Along with each word form, children will learn a "meaning", that is, an additional piece of semantic information about the referent.
For words in the RSR condition, each novel word and meaning, paired with its referent, will be presented as part of the story. Immediately after hearing it, children will be asked to recall both form and meaning, and then will hear those repeated. All subsequent retrieval trials will occur after three other words have intervened since the last time the word appeared in a study trial. Novel words assigned to the comparison condition will simply be heard paired with their referent during the story at the same frequency as words in the RSR condition. Children will not be asked to recall the words in the comparison condition during the learning period. Stories will be presented twice on each of the learning days. As written, the stories are a reasonable length and pace, but by repeating the story, children will hear the words the same number of times overall as in the investigator's previous studies, allowing evaluation of the benefits of the story format. Recall of the word forms and meanings will be tested after the story book reading on the second day and one week later. One week later, the recall test will be re-administered and children will complete a three-alternative recognition test.
The investigators hypothesize that children will show greater recall for word forms in the RSR condition than those in the repeated study condition; past studies have not consistently shown an advantage for recall of "meaning" or for recognition. It is also expected that children with TD will remember more words overall than children with DLD. To the degree that the story format is more engaging for children, overall recall will be enhanced for both groups. Assuming that the results are replicated, it is hoped that the children's book reading format will prove amenable for use by teachers and speech-language pathologists who work with children with DLD.
- Being tested
- Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition, Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study condition
- Keywords
- word learning, word retrieval, preschool-aged children
- Medical subject headings
- Language Development Disorders, Specific Language Disorder
What participants receive
What participants receive. In a randomised study each person is assigned to one group by chance.
Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval conditionBehavioural
Each child will learn 8 novel nouns referring to unfamiliar plants and animals ("nepp") and a related "meaning" ("a nepp likes rain") in the context of a story book. Four of the nouns will be will be learned using repeated spaced retrieval. In this condition, they will initially hear the information and be asked to retrieve it. Thereafter, they will be asked to retrieve it after hearing 3 intervening words. After each retrieval attempt, they will hear the target information again. This procedure will occur on two consecutive days.
Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study conditionBehavioural
Each child will learn 8 novel nouns referring to unfamiliar plants and animals ("nepp") and a related "meaning" ("a nepp likes rain") in the context of a story book. Four of the nouns will be will be learned using repeated study trials only (with no retrieval practice). In this condition, they will simply hear the information (word \& meaning) as part of the story. This procedure will occur on two consecutive days.
| Study group | Role | What they receive |
|---|---|---|
| Children with Developmental Language Disorder | Experimental | These children have a significant delay in language development in the absence of hearing impairment, cognitive delay, autism, or neurological injury/disease. Receives: Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition; Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study condition |
| Children with typical language development | Experimental | Children whose language development is as expected for their age. Receives: Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition; Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study condition |
What is being measured
The primary outcome is the main question the study is designed to answer.
Word Form Accuracy (Number of Words Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 5 Mins.
Five minutes after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the word associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Measured: 5 minutes after end of learning period
Word Form Accuracy (Number of Words Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 1 Week.
One week after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the word associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Measured: 1 week after end of learning period
Word Meaning Recall Accuracy (Number of Semantic Associations Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 5 Mins.
Five minutes after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the semantic information associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Measured: 5 minutes after end of learning period
Word Meaning Recall Accuracy (Number of Semantic Associations Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 1 Week.
One week after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the semantic information associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Measured: 1 week after end of learning period
Word Recognition (Number of Words Accurately Identified) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions.
Upon hearing a novel word, the child is asked to indicate (by pointing) which picture among 3 options is referred to; for words learned under the RSR and RS conditions.
Measured: 1 week after end of learning period
Secondary outcomes (2)
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition
The Peabody Picture Vocabulary is an individually administered, norm-reference test that assesses receptive vocabulary (ability to understand individual words) for children and adults ages 2 years 6 months to 90 years and older. Standard scores are derived from number correct. Standard scores can range from a minimum of 40 and 160. Standard scores between 85 and 115 (1 standard deviation above and below the mean of 100) are interpreted as reflecting receptive vocabulary levels expected for age. Scores below 85 are interpreted as reflecting receptive vocabulary levels below what is expected for age.Scores above 115 are interpreted as reflecting receptive vocabulary levels above what is expected for age.
Measured: Test completed at start of study
Years of Maternal Education
Educational attainment of child's mother in terms of years of education
Measured: Information collected at start of study
Timeline
From the start of the study to its completion; the mark is today. Estimated dates are the sponsor’s plan.
- First posted6 Sep 2023
- Study start31 Oct 2022
- Primary completion17 Sep 2024
- Study completion17 Sep 2024
Resources
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govThe registry entry this page is built from, with its full change history.
- Posted resultsParticipant flow, outcome measures and adverse events reported by the sponsor.
- Other trials for Developmental Language DisorderStudies of the same condition, open and under way.
- What the trial phases meanHow a treatment moves from first tests in people to approval.
More details
For doctors and researchers: how the study is designed, who runs it, and its registry IDs.
Study design
- Study type
- Interventional
- Phase
- Phase N/A
- Primary purpose
- Basic science
- Allocation
- Non-randomised
- Intervention model
- Factorial
- Model description
- Within-participant design in which each child learns words under two conditions
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Enrolment
- 27 participants (actual)
Sponsor and investigators
- Lead sponsor
- Purdue University
- Sponsor type
- University, hospital or other
- Collaborators
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
- Responsible party
- Principal investigator, Laurence Leonard, Purdue University
- Investigators
- Laurence B. Leonard, PhD, Principal investigator, Purdue Universtiy
IDs, dates and publications
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT06026124
- Sponsor's protocol ID
- 1603017480C
- Other IDs
- R01DC014708
- Status last verified
- Sep 2026
- First submitted
- 11 Aug 2023
- Last updated
- 3 Sep 2026
- Results posted
- Yes, on ClinicalTrials.gov
- Data monitoring committee
- No
- FDA-regulated drug
- No
- FDA-regulated device
- No
- Individual data sharing
- Yes: Data that contribute to our final published results will be made available at clinicaltrials.gov.
Study at a glance
From the registry record, last updated by the sponsor on 3 Sep 2026. Recruitment status is as the sponsor reported it: confirm with the study team.
- Official title
- Retrieval-Based Word Learning in Developmental Language Disorder During Book Reading
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT06026124
- Acronym / sponsor ID
- 1603017480C
- Keywords
- word learning, word retrieval, preschool-aged children
- Study type
- Interventional
- Recruitment status
- Completed
- Enrolment
- 27 participants (actual)
- Lead sponsor
- Purdue UniversityUniversity, hospital or other
- Collaborators
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
- Study start
- 31 Oct 2022 (actual)
- Primary completion
- 17 Sep 2024 (actual)
- Study completion
- 17 Sep 2024 (actual)
- First posted
- 6 Sep 2023 (actual)
- Results
- Posted 28 Aug 2025
Clinical summary
The research question as the sponsor registered it. This describes what the study plans to test, not what it found.
Children with developmental language disorder (DLD; also referred to as specific language impairment) experience a significant deficit in language ability that is longstanding and harmful to the children's academic, social, and eventual economic well-being. Word learning is one of the principal weaknesses in these children. This project focuses on the word learning abilities of four- and five-year-old children with DLD. The goal of the project is to build on the investigators' previous work to determine whether, as has been found thus far, special benefits accrue when these children must frequently recall newly introduced words during the course of learning. In this study, the investigators seek to replicate the advantage that repeated retrieval holds over simple exposure to the words and to demonstrate an increase in children's absolute levels of learning by implementing retrieval practice in the context of a story book.
Detailed description
Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) affects language learning in an estimated 7% of children. Although much of the research literature has emphasized difficulties learning grammar, children with DLD also have major deficits in vocabulary. In recent work, the investigators have been examining the benefit of retrieval practice to enhance word learning and retention in preschoolers with DLD. The rationale behind this work is grounded in the growing literature in the field of cognitive psychology which shows that repeated practice in retrieving information results in greater long-term retention than continuous study of that information without opportunities for retrieval. In addition, retrieval practice that occurs after a delay-or "spacing" between study of a word and subsequent recall attempts-can lead to stronger effects.
The investigators have explored the benefits of retrieval practice for preschoolers with DLD and with typical language development (TD), showing that recall and retention for novel words (nouns, adjectives, verbs) were greater when learned using repeated spaced retrieval (RSR) than when learned using repeated study only. Despite benefitting from RSR, children with DLD still showed lower levels of recall than children with TD.
In the current study, the investigators aim to increase accuracy levels by embedding the same words and retrieval schedules used in earlier studies into story contexts. Artist-illustrated stories incorporate illustrations of the unfamiliar plants and animals that served as referents of novel nouns in an earlier study. Sixteen children with DLD will be recruited for this study along with 16 children with TD matched on chronological age. Using a within-subjects design, children will learn eight novel nouns, four embedded in each story. Along with each word form, children will learn a "meaning", that is, an additional piece of semantic information about the referent.
For words in the RSR condition, each novel word and meaning, paired with its referent, will be presented as part of the story. Immediately after hearing it, children will be asked to recall both form and meaning, and then will hear those repeated. All subsequent retrieval trials will occur after three other words have intervened since the last time the word appeared in a study trial. Novel words assigned to the comparison condition will simply be heard paired with their referent during the story at the same frequency as words in the RSR condition. Children will not be asked to recall the words in the comparison condition during the learning period. Stories will be presented twice on each of the learning days. As written, the stories are a reasonable length and pace, but by repeating the story, children will hear the words the same number of times overall as in the investigator's previous studies, allowing evaluation of the benefits of the story format. Recall of the word forms and meanings will be tested after the story book reading on the second day and one week later. One week later, the recall test will be re-administered and children will complete a three-alternative recognition test.
The investigators hypothesize that children will show greater recall for word forms in the RSR condition than those in the repeated study condition; past studies have not consistently shown an advantage for recall of "meaning" or for recognition. It is also expected that children with TD will remember more words overall than children with DLD. To the degree that the story format is more engaging for children, overall recall will be enhanced for both groups. Assuming that the results are replicated, it is hoped that the children's book reading format will prove amenable for use by teachers and speech-language pathologists who work with children with DLD.
Study design
- Primary purpose
- Basic science
- Allocation
- Non-randomised
- Intervention model
- Factorial
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Number of arms
- 2
- Model description
- Within-participant design in which each child learns words under two conditions
| Arm | Type | Receives |
|---|---|---|
| Children with Developmental Language Disorder | Experimental | Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition, Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study conditionThese children have a significant delay in language development in the absence of hearing impairment, cognitive delay, autism, or neurological injury/disease. |
| Children with typical language development | Experimental | Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition, Behavioral: Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study conditionChildren whose language development is as expected for their age. |
Who may qualify
- Ages
- 48 to 71 months
- Sex
- All
- Healthy volunteers
- Accepted
- Age groups
- Child
Key inclusion criteria (6 listed)
- a significant deficit in language ability (language test score below cutoff for best sensitivity/specificity) or documented age-appropriate language ability.
- normal hearing
- no evidence of neurological damage or disease
- scores on tests of nonverbal intelligence above the intellectual disability range
- not within Autistic range on Autism screening test
Key exclusion criteria (5 listed)
- failed hearing screening
- known neurological damage or disease
- scores on tests of nonverbal intelligence below the intellectual disability range (standard score less than 75)
- autism spectrum disorder
- non-native English speaker
Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening; this overview does not establish that a patient qualifies. Full inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Interventions
| Intervention | Type | Arms |
|---|---|---|
| Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval conditionEach child will learn 8 novel nouns referring to unfamiliar plants and animals ("nepp") and a related "meaning" ("a nepp likes rain") in the context of a story book. Four of the nouns will be will be learned using repeated spaced retrieval. In this condition, they will initially hear the information and be asked to retrieve it. Thereafter, they will be asked to retrieve it after hearing 3 intervening words. After each retrieval attempt, they will hear the target information again. This procedure will occur on two consecutive days. | Behavioural | Children with Developmental Language Disorder, Children with typical language development |
| Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study conditionEach child will learn 8 novel nouns referring to unfamiliar plants and animals ("nepp") and a related "meaning" ("a nepp likes rain") in the context of a story book. Four of the nouns will be will be learned using repeated study trials only (with no retrieval practice). In this condition, they will simply hear the information (word \& meaning) as part of the story. This procedure will occur on two consecutive days. | Behavioural | Children with Developmental Language Disorder, Children with typical language development |
Primary outcome
Word Form Accuracy (Number of Words Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 5 Mins.
Time frame: 5 minutes after end of learning period
Five minutes after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the word associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Word Form Accuracy (Number of Words Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 1 Week.
Time frame: 1 week after end of learning period
One week after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the word associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Word Meaning Recall Accuracy (Number of Semantic Associations Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 5 Mins.
Time frame: 5 minutes after end of learning period
Five minutes after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the semantic information associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Word Meaning Recall Accuracy (Number of Semantic Associations Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 1 Week.
Time frame: 1 week after end of learning period
One week after second learning session, the child was asked to recall and say the semantic information associated with each novel referent, learned under one of two conditions: a condition in which spaced retrieval trials occurred (RSR) and one in which there were no retrieval trials (RS). Each of the four verbs were tested twice, for a total of 8 recall items per condition.
Word Recognition (Number of Words Accurately Identified) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions.
Time frame: 1 week after end of learning period
Upon hearing a novel word, the child is asked to indicate (by pointing) which picture among 3 options is referred to; for words learned under the RSR and RS conditions.
2 secondary outcomes
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition
Time frame: Test completed at start of study
Years of Maternal Education
Time frame: Information collected at start of study
Results and safety
Loading the posted results from ClinicalTrials.gov…
Research links
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govLast updated by the sponsor 3 Sep 2026.
- Posted resultsParticipant flow, baseline, all outcome measures and adverse events.
- Individual participant dataSharing planned: Yes. Data that contribute to our final published results will be made available at clinicaltrials.gov.
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Referral and contact
AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals. Contact the study team or a site listed below; they decide who can take part. This study is not recruiting at the moment.
Laurence B. Leonard, PhD principal investigator
Purdue Universtiy
2 sites in 1 country: see every site and its status.
Questions about this trial
What is this clinical trial studying?
A study testing Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Spaced Retrieval condition and Retrieval-based word learning: Repeated Study condition in people with Developmental Language Disorder and Specific Language Impairment, run by Purdue University at 2 sites in United States.
The full registered description is in the About this study section and the official record.
Who may be eligible to take part?
The sponsor lists 6 inclusion and 5 exclusion criteria. Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening, so read the full criteria and contact a listed site.
Is this clinical trial currently recruiting?
The record says: finished, as of the sponsor's last update on 3 Sep 2026. Status can change between updates, so confirm with the study contact before making plans.
Where is the study taking place?
The record lists 2 sites in United States. Whether a site is taking part right now should be confirmed with that site. See every site.
What are the possible benefits and risks?
They depend on the study and the treatment, and no study can promise a benefit. The study team explains the known risks during informed consent, before anyone joins; the record itself does not list them.
Are results available for this study?
Yes. Results are posted in the registry (first posted 28 Aug 2025). A summary is in the For doctors view, and the full results are on ClinicalTrials.gov.
How can a doctor refer a patient or contact the research team?
The record lists no contact. The official record names the sponsor, who can be asked directly. AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals.
What does the primary outcome measure?
Word Form Accuracy (Number of Words Correctly Recalled) in Repeated Spaced Retrieval (RSR) and Repeated Study (RS) Conditions at 5 Mins. (time frame: 5 minutes after end of learning period). The study lists 5 primary outcomes in all. It is what the study was designed to measure, not a finding.
Where can I read the original study information?
Does a listing mean the treatment is approved or proven to work?
No. A listing means the study is registered. It does not show that the treatment is safe, works, or is approved by a regulator.
How often is this information updated?
AzTrials copies changed records from ClinicalTrials.gov every night and reloads the whole registry every week. The sponsor last updated this record on 3 Sep 2026; AzTrials last refreshed its copy on 26 Oct 2026.