Sports PerformanceNCT07356427
VR Tennis Training Effects on Psychological Outcomes
A study testing Virtual Reality Tennis Training and Traditional Tennis Training in people with Sports Performance and Psychological Adaptation, run by Universiti Sains Malaysia at 1 site in China.
Trial summary
This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of an 8-week virtual reality (VR) tennis training intervention on psychological outcomes among Chinese university tennis players. Read more about this study
- Who is it for?
- Ages 18 to 26 yearsHealthy volunteers can take part
- Conditions the study is for
- Sports Performance, Psychological Adaptation
- What is being tested?
- Virtual Reality Tennis Training and Traditional Tennis Training
- Type of treatment
- Lifestyle or therapy programme
- Could I receive a placebo?
- No, everyone receives an active treatment
- How many people
- 180 participants
- Where
- 1 siteChina
- Study dates
- 1 Sep 2025to 1 Nov 2025
- Phase
- Interventional
- Are there results?
- None posted in the registry
Key requirements
Who can take part, as listed by the sponsor. Only the study team can confirm whether you are eligible, so take this list to your doctor.
- Ages 18 to 26 years
- All sexes
- Healthy volunteers accepted
- Adult
Who may be able to join
- Undergraduate students aged 18-26 years
- Enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs at Hezhou University
- Completed at least two semesters of formal tennis instruction
- Basic tennis proficiency (able to perform forehand, backhand, and serve)
- Willing to participate in the 8-week training program
- Able to provide written informed consent
Who cannot join
- Visual impairments that could not be corrected and would preclude VR headset use
- History of photosensitive epilepsy or seizure disorders
- Vestibular disorders or severe motion sickness
- Current participation in competitive tennis programs at regional or higher levels
- Prior experience with VR-based sports training systems
- Any musculoskeletal injury preventing full participation in tennis training
Trial locations and contacts
1 site in 1 country.
About this study
Official title: Effects of Virtual Reality Tennis Training on Self-Efficacy, Flow Experience, Embodied Cognition, and Intention to Use Among Chinese University Tennis Players: A Randomized Controlled Trial
This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of an 8-week virtual reality (VR) tennis training intervention on psychological outcomes among Chinese university tennis players.
A total of 180 participants were randomly assigned to either a VR training group (n=90) using Meta Quest 2 headsets or a traditional training control group (n=90). The VR group received immersive tennis training twice weekly for 60 minutes per session, while the control group received equivalent traditional coaching.
Read more
Primary outcomes included self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use, measured at baseline and post-intervention. Secondary analyses examined whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediated the relationship between VR training and intention to use.
The study aimed to provide evidence for the effectiveness of VR technology in sports training and to elucidate the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training benefits.
Read the detailed description
Background:
Virtual reality (VR) technology has emerged as a promising tool for sports training, offering immersive environments that simulate real-world athletic scenarios. Tennis represents an ideal sport for VR training applications due to its technical complexity, spatial demands, and the importance of anticipatory skills. Despite growing adoption of VR in sports contexts, the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training effectiveness remain insufficiently understood.
Theoretical Framework:
This study was grounded in four theoretical perspectives: (1) Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, proposing that VR training enhances confidence through mastery experiences; (2) Csikszentmihalyi's Flow Theory, suggesting VR environments facilitate optimal psychological states; (3) Embodied Cognition Theory, emphasizing that cognitive processes are rooted in bodily interactions; and (4) the Technology Acceptance Model, providing a framework for understanding intention to use technology.
Objectives:
Primary objectives were to determine whether VR tennis training produces greater improvements in self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use compared to traditional training. Secondary objectives investigated whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediate the effect of VR training on intention to use.
Methods:
A parallel-group, single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted at Hezhou University, Guangxi, China. Eligible participants were undergraduate students aged 18-26 years enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs with at least two semesters of tennis instruction. Participants were randomly assigned using computer-generated random numbers with stratification by sex and year of study.
Intervention:
The VR group received 8 weeks of immersive tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays (2 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session, 16 sessions total). Training included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). The control group received matched traditional tennis training with the same frequency, duration, and content structure.
Outcome Measures:
Self-efficacy was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Flow experience was assessed using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Embodied cognition was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires. Intention to use was assessed with a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model. Sport motivation (SMS-II) was measured as a covariate.
Statistical Analysis:
Between-group differences were examined using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for baseline scores and sport motivation. Effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g. Parallel mediation analysis was conducted using the PROCESS macro with bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (10,000 samples).
- Conditions
- Sports Performance, Psychological Adaptation
- Being tested
- Virtual Reality Tennis Training, Traditional Tennis Training
- Keywords
- Virtual Reality, Tennis, Flow Experience, Embodied Cognition, Technology Acceptance, Sports Psychology, Self-Efficacy
What participants receive
What participants receive. In a randomised study each person is assigned to one group by chance.
Virtual Reality Tennis TrainingBehavioural
Immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays. The VR system provided real-time feedback on stroke mechanics, ball trajectory, and court positioning. Training included progressive difficulty adjustment based on individual performance. Participants practiced forehand, backhand, serve techniques, and tactical decision-making against virtual opponents.
Traditional Tennis TrainingBehavioural
Standard tennis training delivered by qualified coaches on regular tennis courts. Training included ball feeding machines, partner practice, and coach-led instruction for technical skills, as well as competitive rallies for tactical application.
| Study group | Role | What they receive |
|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Tennis Training | Experimental | Participants received 8 weeks of immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 headsets. Training sessions were conducted twice weekly, each lasting 60 minutes (16 sessions total). Sessions included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). Receives: Behavioral: Traditional Tennis Training |
| Traditional Tennis Training | Active comparator | Participants received 8 weeks of traditional tennis training matched for frequency (twice weekly), duration (60 minutes/session), and content structure. Sessions included physical warm-up (10 min), technical skill drills (25 min), point play and match simulation (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). Receives: Behavioral: Virtual Reality Tennis Training |
What is being measured
The primary outcome is the main question the study is designed to answer.
Self-Efficacy
Tennis-specific self-efficacy measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Items assess confidence in performing tennis skills and managing competitive situations. Responses on 5-point Likert scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). Higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy. Score range: 1-5.
Measured: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Flow Experience
Flow during training measured using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Items assess challenge-skill balance, concentration, sense of control, and intrinsic enjoyment. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater flow experience. Score range: 1-5.
Measured: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Embodied Cognition
Embodied cognition during training measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires (Wilson 2002; Gonzalez-Franco 2018). Items assess sense of presence, body ownership, and sense of agency. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater embodied cognition. Score range: 1-5.
Measured: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Intention to Use
Intention to continue using the training method measured using a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989). Items assess willingness to use, recommend, and prefer the training method. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater intention to use. Score range: 1-5.
Measured: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Timeline
From the start of the study to its completion; the mark is today. Estimated dates are the sponsor’s plan.
- First posted21 Jan 2026
- Study start1 Sep 2025
- Primary completion1 Nov 2025
- Study completion1 Nov 2025
Resources
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govThe registry entry this page is built from, with its full change history.
- Publications (1)Papers the sponsor has linked to this study.
- Other trials for Sports PerformanceStudies of the same condition, open and under way.
- What the trial phases meanHow a treatment moves from first tests in people to approval.
More details
For doctors and researchers: how the study is designed, who runs it, and its registry IDs.
Study design
- Study type
- Interventional
- Phase
- Phase N/A
- Primary purpose
- Other
- Allocation
- Randomised
- Intervention model
- Parallel groups
- Model description
- Participants were randomly assigned to either the VR tennis training group or the traditional tennis training control group in a 1:1 ratio, with both groups receiving training concurrently over the 8-week intervention period.
- Masking
- Single blind
- Who is masked
- Outcomes assessor
- Enrolment
- 180 participants (actual)
Sponsor and investigators
- Lead sponsor
- Universiti Sains Malaysia
- Sponsor type
- University, hospital or other
- Responsible party
- Principal investigator, ROHAYU BINTI HAMI, Universiti Sains Malaysia
- Investigators
- Rui Liu, PhD Candidate, Principal investigator, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains MalaysiaRohayu Hami, PhD, Study director, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia
IDs, dates and publications
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07356427
- Sponsor's protocol ID
- USM/JEPeM/PP/25030255
- Status last verified
- Jan 2026
- First submitted
- 12 Jan 2026
- Last updated
- 22 Jan 2026
- Results posted
- No
- Data monitoring committee
- No
- FDA-regulated drug
- No
- FDA-regulated device
- No
- Individual data sharing
- No: This study was conducted as part of a doctoral dissertation. The informed consent obtained from participants did not include provisions for sharing individual-level data with external researchers.
Publications
Liu R, Yusof HA, Zhong Z, Wu WJ, Hami R. Psychological outcomes and intention to use following an 8-week virtual reality tennis training programme: a randomised controlled trial with exploratory mediation analysis. BMC Psychol. 2026 Jul 29;14(1):1211. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-05260-4.
PubMed 42613638
Study at a glance
From the registry record, last updated by the sponsor on 22 Jan 2026. Recruitment status is as the sponsor reported it: confirm with the study team.
- Official title
- Effects of Virtual Reality Tennis Training on Self-Efficacy, Flow Experience, Embodied Cognition, and Intention to Use Among Chinese University Tennis Players: A Randomized Controlled Trial
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07356427
- Acronym / sponsor ID
- USM/JEPeM/PP/25030255
- Conditions
- Sports Performance, Psychological Adaptation
- Keywords
- Virtual Reality, Tennis, Flow Experience, Embodied Cognition, Technology Acceptance, Sports Psychology, Self-Efficacy
- Study type
- Interventional
- Recruitment status
- Completed
- Enrolment
- 180 participants (actual)
- Lead sponsor
- Universiti Sains MalaysiaUniversity, hospital or other
- Study start
- 1 Sep 2025 (actual)
- Primary completion
- 1 Nov 2025 (actual)
- Study completion
- 1 Nov 2025 (actual)
- First posted
- 21 Jan 2026 (actual)
- Results
- Not posted in the source record
Clinical summary
The research question as the sponsor registered it. This describes what the study plans to test, not what it found.
This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of an 8-week virtual reality (VR) tennis training intervention on psychological outcomes among Chinese university tennis players.
A total of 180 participants were randomly assigned to either a VR training group (n=90) using Meta Quest 2 headsets or a traditional training control group (n=90). The VR group received immersive tennis training twice weekly for 60 minutes per session, while the control group received equivalent traditional coaching.
Primary outcomes included self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use, measured at baseline and post-intervention. Secondary analyses examined whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediated the relationship between VR training and intention to use.
The study aimed to provide evidence for the effectiveness of VR technology in sports training and to elucidate the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training benefits.
Detailed description
Background:
Virtual reality (VR) technology has emerged as a promising tool for sports training, offering immersive environments that simulate real-world athletic scenarios. Tennis represents an ideal sport for VR training applications due to its technical complexity, spatial demands, and the importance of anticipatory skills. Despite growing adoption of VR in sports contexts, the psychological mechanisms underlying VR training effectiveness remain insufficiently understood.
Theoretical Framework:
This study was grounded in four theoretical perspectives: (1) Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, proposing that VR training enhances confidence through mastery experiences; (2) Csikszentmihalyi's Flow Theory, suggesting VR environments facilitate optimal psychological states; (3) Embodied Cognition Theory, emphasizing that cognitive processes are rooted in bodily interactions; and (4) the Technology Acceptance Model, providing a framework for understanding intention to use technology.
Objectives:
Primary objectives were to determine whether VR tennis training produces greater improvements in self-efficacy, flow experience, embodied cognition, and intention to use compared to traditional training. Secondary objectives investigated whether self-efficacy and flow experience mediate the effect of VR training on intention to use.
Methods:
A parallel-group, single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted at Hezhou University, Guangxi, China. Eligible participants were undergraduate students aged 18-26 years enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs with at least two semesters of tennis instruction. Participants were randomly assigned using computer-generated random numbers with stratification by sex and year of study.
Intervention:
The VR group received 8 weeks of immersive tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays (2 sessions/week, 60 minutes/session, 16 sessions total). Training included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). The control group received matched traditional tennis training with the same frequency, duration, and content structure.
Outcome Measures:
Self-efficacy was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Flow experience was assessed using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Embodied cognition was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires. Intention to use was assessed with a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model. Sport motivation (SMS-II) was measured as a covariate.
Statistical Analysis:
Between-group differences were examined using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) controlling for baseline scores and sport motivation. Effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g. Parallel mediation analysis was conducted using the PROCESS macro with bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (10,000 samples).
Study design
- Primary purpose
- Other
- Allocation
- Randomised
- Intervention model
- Parallel groups
- Masking
- Single blind (outcomes assessor)
- Number of arms
- 2
- Model description
- Participants were randomly assigned to either the VR tennis training group or the traditional tennis training control group in a 1:1 ratio, with both groups receiving training concurrently over the 8-week intervention period.
| Arm | Type | Receives |
|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Tennis Training | Experimental | Behavioral: Traditional Tennis TrainingParticipants received 8 weeks of immersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 headsets. Training sessions were conducted twice weekly, each lasting 60 minutes (16 sessions total). Sessions included warm-up in virtual environment (10 min), technical skill practice (25 min), tactical decision-making scenarios (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). |
| Traditional Tennis Training | Active comparator | Behavioral: Virtual Reality Tennis TrainingParticipants received 8 weeks of traditional tennis training matched for frequency (twice weekly), duration (60 minutes/session), and content structure. Sessions included physical warm-up (10 min), technical skill drills (25 min), point play and match simulation (20 min), and cool-down (5 min). |
Who may qualify
- Ages
- 18 to 26 years
- Sex
- All
- Healthy volunteers
- Accepted
- Age groups
- Adult
Key inclusion criteria (6 listed)
- Undergraduate students aged 18-26 years
- Enrolled in Physical Education or Sports Science programs at Hezhou University
- Completed at least two semesters of formal tennis instruction
- Basic tennis proficiency (able to perform forehand, backhand, and serve)
- Willing to participate in the 8-week training program
Key exclusion criteria (6 listed)
- Visual impairments that could not be corrected and would preclude VR headset use
- History of photosensitive epilepsy or seizure disorders
- Vestibular disorders or severe motion sickness
- Current participation in competitive tennis programs at regional or higher levels
- Prior experience with VR-based sports training systems
Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening; this overview does not establish that a patient qualifies. Full inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Interventions
| Intervention | Type | Arms |
|---|---|---|
| Virtual Reality Tennis TrainingImmersive VR tennis training using Meta Quest 2 head-mounted displays. The VR system provided real-time feedback on stroke mechanics, ball trajectory, and court positioning. Training included progressive difficulty adjustment based on individual performance. Participants practiced forehand, backhand, serve techniques, and tactical decision-making against virtual opponents. | Behavioural | Traditional Tennis Training |
| Traditional Tennis TrainingStandard tennis training delivered by qualified coaches on regular tennis courts. Training included ball feeding machines, partner practice, and coach-led instruction for technical skills, as well as competitive rallies for tactical application. | Behavioural | Virtual Reality Tennis Training |
Primary outcome
Self-Efficacy
Time frame: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Tennis-specific self-efficacy measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Bandura (2006). Items assess confidence in performing tennis skills and managing competitive situations. Responses on 5-point Likert scale (1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree). Higher scores indicate greater self-efficacy. Score range: 1-5.
Flow Experience
Time frame: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Flow during training measured using a 10-item scale based on Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Items assess challenge-skill balance, concentration, sense of control, and intrinsic enjoyment. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater flow experience. Score range: 1-5.
Embodied Cognition
Time frame: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Embodied cognition during training measured using an 8-item scale adapted from presence questionnaires (Wilson 2002; Gonzalez-Franco 2018). Items assess sense of presence, body ownership, and sense of agency. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater embodied cognition. Score range: 1-5.
Intention to Use
Time frame: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)
Intention to continue using the training method measured using a 6-item scale adapted from the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989). Items assess willingness to use, recommend, and prefer the training method. Responses on 5-point Likert scale. Higher scores indicate greater intention to use. Score range: 1-5.
Results and safety
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
Research links
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govLast updated by the sponsor 22 Jan 2026.
- Derived from this study: PubMed 42613638Liu R, Yusof HA, Zhong Z, Wu WJ, Hami R. Psychological outcomes and intention to use following an 8-week virtual reality tennis training programme: a randomised controlled trial with exploratory mediation analysis. BMC Psychol. 2026 Jul 29;14(1):1211. doi: 10.1186/s40359-026-05260-4.
- Individual participant dataSharing planned: No. This study was conducted as part of a doctoral dissertation. The informed consent obtained from participants did not include provisions for sharing individual-level data with external researchers.
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Referral and contact
AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals. Contact the study team or a site listed below; they decide who can take part. This study is not recruiting at the moment.
Rui Liu, PhD Candidate principal investigator
Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Rohayu Hami, PhD study director
Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia
1 site in 1 country: see every site and its status.
Questions about this trial
What is this clinical trial studying?
A study testing Virtual Reality Tennis Training and Traditional Tennis Training in people with Sports Performance and Psychological Adaptation, run by Universiti Sains Malaysia at 1 site in China.
The full registered description is in the About this study section and the official record.
Who may be eligible to take part?
The sponsor lists 6 inclusion and 6 exclusion criteria. Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening, so read the full criteria and contact a listed site.
Is this clinical trial currently recruiting?
The record says: finished, as of the sponsor's last update on 22 Jan 2026. Status can change between updates, so confirm with the study contact before making plans.
Where is the study taking place?
The record lists 1 site in China. Whether a site is taking part right now should be confirmed with that site. See every site.
What are the possible benefits and risks?
They depend on the study and the treatment, and no study can promise a benefit. The study team explains the known risks during informed consent, before anyone joins; the record itself does not list them.
Are results available for this study?
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
How can a doctor refer a patient or contact the research team?
The record lists no contact. The official record names the sponsor, who can be asked directly. AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals.
What does the primary outcome measure?
Self-Efficacy (time frame: Baseline and 8 weeks (post-intervention)). The study lists 4 primary outcomes in all. It is what the study was designed to measure, not a finding.
Where can I read the original study information?
On the ClinicalTrials.gov record for NCT07356427, which also lists 1 linked publication.
Does a listing mean the treatment is approved or proven to work?
No. A listing means the study is registered. It does not show that the treatment is safe, works, or is approved by a regulator.
How often is this information updated?
AzTrials copies changed records from ClinicalTrials.gov every night and reloads the whole registry every week. The sponsor last updated this record on 22 Jan 2026.