Tennis Motor Skill LearningNCT07822035
Attentional Focus and Feedback Timing in Children's Tennis Skill Learning
A study testing Distal External Attentional Focus, Proximal External Attentional Focus and Internal Attentional Focus in people with Tennis Motor Skill Learning, run by Guangzhou University at 4 sites in China.
Trial summary
This study evaluated how different attentional focus instructions and feedback timing affect tennis motor skill learning in children aged 9 to 12 years. The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design involving four primary schools in Shenzhen, China. Read more about this study
- Who is it for?
- Ages 9 to 12 yearsHealthy volunteers can take part
- Conditions the study is for
- Tennis Motor Skill Learning
- What is being tested?
- Distal External Attentional Focus, Proximal External Attentional Focus and Internal Attentional Focus
- Type of treatment
- Lifestyle or therapy programme
- Could I receive a placebo?
- No, everyone receives an active treatment
- How many people
- 160 participants
- Where
- 4 sitesChina
- Study dates
- 1 Sep 2024to 10 Jan 2025
- Phase
- Interventional
- Are there results?
- None posted in the registry
Key requirements
Who can take part, as listed by the sponsor. Only the study team can confirm whether you are eligible, so take this list to your doctor.
- Ages 9 to 12 years
- All sexes
- Healthy volunteers accepted
- Child
Who may be able to join
- Children aged 9 to 12 years and enrolled in Grade 4 or Grade 6.
- Have basic proficiency in the four tennis motor skills of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve and are able to participate in regular tennis training.
- Right-handed.
- In good physical condition, with no serious medical condition that would interfere with participation in tennis training.
- Willing to participate in the study, with written informed consent provided by a parent or legal guardian.
Who cannot join
- Serious cardiopulmonary disease, musculoskeletal injury, neurological disease, or any other condition that makes participation in moderate-intensity physical activity inappropriate.
- A diagnosed psychiatric disorder or cognitive or behavioral condition that substantially interferes with understanding instructional cues or completing study assessments.
- Recent acute injury or pain, or medical advice to temporarily refrain from physical activity.
- Unable to complete the training, testing, or study data collection procedures according to the study protocol.
Trial locations and contacts
4 sites in 1 country.
China4 sites
Longhua Experimental Primary School
Shenzhen, Guangdong, 510000
Longhua Foreign Language School
Shenzhen, Guangdong, 510000
Minle Primary School
Shenzhen, Guangdong, 510000
Tiandong Primary School
Shenzhen, Guangdong, 510000
About this study
Official title: Effects of Attentional Focus and Feedback Timing on Children's Tennis Motor Skill Learning
This study evaluated how different attentional focus instructions and feedback timing affect tennis motor skill learning in children aged 9 to 12 years. The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design involving four primary schools in Shenzhen, China.
Each participating school implemented one of four attentional focus conditions: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, or neutral instruction. Within each school, eligible children were assigned to either immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback, resulting in eight experimental conditions. All participants completed the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks, with three 90-minute training sessions per week.
The study assessed children's performance in four tennis skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Skill-performance attainment and technique evaluation were assessed before and after the intervention. Retention and transfer of the learned skills were additionally assessed two weeks after completion of the intervention. The study was designed to determine whether attentional focus, feedback timing, or the interaction between these two factors influences children's acquisition, retention, and transfer of tennis motor skills.
Read the detailed description
The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of attentional focus and feedback timing on children's tennis motor skill learning. The first experimental factor was attentional focus, with four levels: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction. The second factor was feedback timing, with two levels: immediate feedback and delayed summary feedback.
The four attentional focus conditions were implemented at the school level. Each participating school was assigned one attentional focus condition according to the study implementation arrangement. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced according to sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and were then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either the immediate-feedback condition or the delayed-feedback condition using a computer-generated random sequence. This procedure resulted in eight experimental conditions.
All groups received the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. The training program included forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. The training content, progression, facilities, equipment, and instructor qualifications were standardized across study sites. The experimental differences between groups were limited to attentional focus instructions and the timing of feedback.
In the distal external-focus condition, children were instructed to focus on outcomes such as the ball's target location and flight trajectory. In the proximal external-focus condition, they focused on the interaction between the racket and the ball. In the internal-focus condition, they focused on body movements, movement technique, and force production. The neutral-instruction condition used conventional instructional language without a specific attentional focus cue. Participants receiving immediate feedback were provided with instructional or technical feedback immediately after each performance, whereas participants receiving delayed summary feedback received feedback after completion of a practice set.
Tennis motor skill learning was evaluated using standardized assessments of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve performance. The study examined skill acquisition after the 12-week intervention and subsequently assessed retention and transfer of the learned skills after a post-intervention interval.
- Conditions
- Tennis Motor Skill Learning
- Being tested
- Distal External Attentional Focus, Proximal External Attentional Focus, Internal Attentional Focus, Neutral Instruction, Immediate Feedback
- Keywords
- Attentional Focus, Feedback Timing, Motor Learning, Tennis, Children, Skill Acquisition, Skill Retention, Skill Transfer
What participants receive
What participants receive. In a randomised study each person is assigned to one group by chance.
Distal External Attentional FocusBehavioural
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward distal external effects of the movement, including the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Proximal External Attentional FocusBehavioural
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward proximal external effects of the movement, particularly the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Internal Attentional FocusBehavioural
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward their own body movements, technical movement patterns, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. These instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Neutral InstructionBehavioural
Participants received conventional tennis instructional cues during the standardized 12-week training program without specific external or internal attentional-focus instructions. Training content, progression, frequency, and duration were the same as in the other attentional-focus conditions. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Immediate FeedbackBehavioural
Participants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance. The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance.
Delayed Summary FeedbackBehavioural
Participants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance. Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls. The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback.
| Study group | Role | What they receive |
|---|---|---|
| Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback | Experimental | Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance. Receives: Behavioral: Distal External Attentional Focus; Behavioral: Immediate Feedback |
| Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback | Experimental | Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each performance. Receives: Behavioral: Distal External Attentional Focus; Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback |
| Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback | Experimental | Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance. Receives: Behavioral: Proximal External Attentional Focus; Behavioral: Immediate Feedback |
| Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback | Experimental | Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set. Receives: Behavioral: Proximal External Attentional Focus; Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback |
| Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback | Experimental | Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance. Receives: Behavioral: Internal Attentional Focus; Behavioral: Immediate Feedback |
| Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback | Experimental | Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set. Receives: Behavioral: Internal Attentional Focus; Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback |
| Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback | Active comparator | Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance. Receives: Behavioral: Neutral Instruction; Behavioral: Immediate Feedback |
| Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback | Active comparator | Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set. Receives: Behavioral: Neutral Instruction; Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback |
What is being measured
The primary outcome is the main question the study is designed to answer.
Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12
Tennis skill-performance attainment was assessed for four tennis motor skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Participants completed predefined performance tasks, and their performance was evaluated according to prespecified task-specific scoring criteria. The primary outcome was the change in skill-performance attainment from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
Measured: Baseline and Week 12
Change in Tennis Technique Evaluation Score From Baseline to Week 12
Tennis technique was evaluated for forehand, backhand, volley, and serve using standardized technique-evaluation criteria. The assessment focused on movement structure, body coordination, racket and ball control, and overall technical quality. The primary outcome was the change in technique evaluation score from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
Measured: Baseline and Week 12
Secondary outcomes (2)
Tennis Skill Retention Score at Week 14
Retention of the learned tennis motor skills was assessed two weeks after completion of the 12-week intervention. Participants were evaluated on the stability of their performance in the learned tennis skills, including forehand, backhand, volley, and serve, using the predefined study assessment procedures.
Measured: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
Tennis Skill Transfer Score at Week 14
Transfer of the learned tennis motor skills was assessed two weeks after completion of the 12-week intervention. Participants were evaluated on their ability to apply the learned tennis skills under modified task conditions using the predefined study assessment procedures.
Measured: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
Timeline
From the start of the study to its completion; the mark is today. Estimated dates are the sponsor’s plan.
- First posted16 Sep 2026
- Study start1 Sep 2024
- Primary completion27 Dec 2024
- Study completion10 Jan 2025
Resources
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govThe registry entry this page is built from, with its full change history.
- Other trials for Tennis Motor Skill LearningStudies of the same condition, open and under way.
- What the trial phases meanHow a treatment moves from first tests in people to approval.
More details
For doctors and researchers: how the study is designed, who runs it, and its registry IDs.
Study design
- Study type
- Interventional
- Phase
- Phase N/A
- Primary purpose
- Other
- Allocation
- Non-randomised
- Intervention model
- Factorial
- Model description
- This study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design. Four attentional focus conditions (distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction) were assigned at the school level according to implementation feasibility. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced by sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback using a computer-generated random sequence, resulting in eight intervention conditions.
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Enrolment
- 160 participants (actual)
Sponsor and investigators
- Lead sponsor
- Guangzhou University
- Sponsor type
- University, hospital or other
- Responsible party
- Principal investigator, Liying Yao, Guangzhou University
IDs, dates and publications
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07822035
- Sponsor's protocol ID
- TJUS2023-051
- Status last verified
- Sep 2026
- First submitted
- 10 Sep 2026
- Last updated
- 16 Sep 2026
- Results posted
- No
- Data monitoring committee
- No
- FDA-regulated drug
- No
- FDA-regulated device
- No
- Individual data sharing
- No: Individual participant data (IPD) will not be shared. Participants in this study are minors, and individual-level data are subject to the privacy and confidentiality protections specified in the ethics-approved study procedures. Study results will be reported only in aggregate form without disclosure of information that could identify individual participants.
Study at a glance
From the registry record, last updated by the sponsor on 16 Sep 2026. Recruitment status is as the sponsor reported it: confirm with the study team.
- Official title
- Effects of Attentional Focus and Feedback Timing on Children's Tennis Motor Skill Learning
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07822035
- Acronym / sponsor ID
- TJUS2023-051
- Conditions
- Tennis Motor Skill Learning
- Keywords
- Attentional Focus, Feedback Timing, Motor Learning, Tennis, Children, Skill Acquisition, Skill Retention, Skill Transfer
- Study type
- Interventional
- Recruitment status
- Completed
- Enrolment
- 160 participants (actual)
- Lead sponsor
- Guangzhou UniversityUniversity, hospital or other
- Study start
- 1 Sep 2024 (actual)
- Primary completion
- 27 Dec 2024 (actual)
- Study completion
- 10 Jan 2025 (actual)
- First posted
- 16 Sep 2026 (actual)
- Results
- Not posted in the source record
Clinical summary
The research question as the sponsor registered it. This describes what the study plans to test, not what it found.
This study evaluated how different attentional focus instructions and feedback timing affect tennis motor skill learning in children aged 9 to 12 years. The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design involving four primary schools in Shenzhen, China.
Each participating school implemented one of four attentional focus conditions: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, or neutral instruction. Within each school, eligible children were assigned to either immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback, resulting in eight experimental conditions. All participants completed the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks, with three 90-minute training sessions per week.
The study assessed children's performance in four tennis skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Skill-performance attainment and technique evaluation were assessed before and after the intervention. Retention and transfer of the learned skills were additionally assessed two weeks after completion of the intervention. The study was designed to determine whether attentional focus, feedback timing, or the interaction between these two factors influences children's acquisition, retention, and transfer of tennis motor skills.
Detailed description
The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of attentional focus and feedback timing on children's tennis motor skill learning. The first experimental factor was attentional focus, with four levels: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction. The second factor was feedback timing, with two levels: immediate feedback and delayed summary feedback.
The four attentional focus conditions were implemented at the school level. Each participating school was assigned one attentional focus condition according to the study implementation arrangement. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced according to sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and were then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either the immediate-feedback condition or the delayed-feedback condition using a computer-generated random sequence. This procedure resulted in eight experimental conditions.
All groups received the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. The training program included forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. The training content, progression, facilities, equipment, and instructor qualifications were standardized across study sites. The experimental differences between groups were limited to attentional focus instructions and the timing of feedback.
In the distal external-focus condition, children were instructed to focus on outcomes such as the ball's target location and flight trajectory. In the proximal external-focus condition, they focused on the interaction between the racket and the ball. In the internal-focus condition, they focused on body movements, movement technique, and force production. The neutral-instruction condition used conventional instructional language without a specific attentional focus cue. Participants receiving immediate feedback were provided with instructional or technical feedback immediately after each performance, whereas participants receiving delayed summary feedback received feedback after completion of a practice set.
Tennis motor skill learning was evaluated using standardized assessments of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve performance. The study examined skill acquisition after the 12-week intervention and subsequently assessed retention and transfer of the learned skills after a post-intervention interval.
Study design
- Primary purpose
- Other
- Allocation
- Non-randomised
- Intervention model
- Factorial
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Number of arms
- 8
- Model description
- This study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design. Four attentional focus conditions (distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction) were assigned at the school level according to implementation feasibility. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced by sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback using a computer-generated random sequence, resulting in eight intervention conditions.
| Arm | Type | Receives |
|---|---|---|
| Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback | Experimental | Behavioral: Distal External Attentional Focus, Behavioral: Immediate FeedbackParticipants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance. |
| Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback | Experimental | Behavioral: Distal External Attentional Focus, Behavioral: Delayed Summary FeedbackParticipants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each performance. |
| Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback | Experimental | Behavioral: Proximal External Attentional Focus, Behavioral: Immediate FeedbackParticipants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance. |
| Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback | Experimental | Behavioral: Proximal External Attentional Focus, Behavioral: Delayed Summary FeedbackParticipants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set. |
| Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback | Experimental | Behavioral: Internal Attentional Focus, Behavioral: Immediate FeedbackParticipants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance. |
| Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback | Experimental | Behavioral: Internal Attentional Focus, Behavioral: Delayed Summary FeedbackParticipants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set. |
| Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback | Active comparator | Behavioral: Neutral Instruction, Behavioral: Immediate FeedbackParticipants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance. |
| Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback | Active comparator | Behavioral: Neutral Instruction, Behavioral: Delayed Summary FeedbackParticipants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set. |
Who may qualify
- Ages
- 9 to 12 years
- Sex
- All
- Healthy volunteers
- Accepted
- Age groups
- Child
Key inclusion criteria (5 listed)
- Children aged 9 to 12 years and enrolled in Grade 4 or Grade 6.
- Have basic proficiency in the four tennis motor skills of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve and are able to participate in regular tennis training.
- Right-handed.
- In good physical condition, with no serious medical condition that would interfere with participation in tennis training.
- Willing to participate in the study, with written informed consent provided by a parent or legal guardian.
Key exclusion criteria (4 listed)
- Serious cardiopulmonary disease, musculoskeletal injury, neurological disease, or any other condition that makes participation in moderate-intensity physical activity inappropriate.
- A diagnosed psychiatric disorder or cognitive or behavioral condition that substantially interferes with understanding instructional cues or completing study assessments.
- Recent acute injury or pain, or medical advice to temporarily refrain from physical activity.
- Unable to complete the training, testing, or study data collection procedures according to the study protocol.
Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening; this overview does not establish that a patient qualifies. Full inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Interventions
| Intervention | Type | Arms |
|---|---|---|
| Distal External Attentional FocusDuring the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward distal external effects of the movement, including the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. | Behavioural | Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback, Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback |
| Proximal External Attentional FocusDuring the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward proximal external effects of the movement, particularly the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. | Behavioural | Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback, Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback |
| Internal Attentional FocusDuring the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward their own body movements, technical movement patterns, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. These instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. | Behavioural | Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback, Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback |
| Neutral InstructionParticipants received conventional tennis instructional cues during the standardized 12-week training program without specific external or internal attentional-focus instructions. Training content, progression, frequency, and duration were the same as in the other attentional-focus conditions. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. | Behavioural | Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback, Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback |
| Immediate FeedbackParticipants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance. The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance. | Behavioural | Distal External Focus + Immediate Feedback, Internal Focus + Immediate Feedback, Neutral Instruction + Immediate Feedback, Proximal External Focus + Immediate Feedback |
| Delayed Summary FeedbackParticipants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance. Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls. The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback. | Behavioural | Distal External Focus + Delayed Feedback, Internal Focus + Delayed Feedback, Neutral Instruction + Delayed Feedback, Proximal External Focus + Delayed Feedback |
Primary outcome
Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12
Time frame: Baseline and Week 12
Tennis skill-performance attainment was assessed for four tennis motor skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Participants completed predefined performance tasks, and their performance was evaluated according to prespecified task-specific scoring criteria. The primary outcome was the change in skill-performance attainment from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
Change in Tennis Technique Evaluation Score From Baseline to Week 12
Time frame: Baseline and Week 12
Tennis technique was evaluated for forehand, backhand, volley, and serve using standardized technique-evaluation criteria. The assessment focused on movement structure, body coordination, racket and ball control, and overall technical quality. The primary outcome was the change in technique evaluation score from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
2 secondary outcomes
Tennis Skill Retention Score at Week 14
Time frame: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
Tennis Skill Transfer Score at Week 14
Time frame: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
Results and safety
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
Research links
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govLast updated by the sponsor 16 Sep 2026.
- Individual participant dataSharing planned: No. Individual participant data (IPD) will not be shared. Participants in this study are minors, and individual-level data are subject to the privacy and confidentiality protections specified in the ethics-approved study procedures. Study results will be reported only in aggregate form without disclosure of information that could identify individual participants.
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Referral and contact
AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals. Contact the study team or a site listed below; they decide who can take part. This study is not recruiting at the moment.
The record lists no contact. Use the official record to reach the sponsor.
4 sites in 1 country: see every site and its status.
Questions about this trial
What is this clinical trial studying?
A study testing Distal External Attentional Focus, Proximal External Attentional Focus and Internal Attentional Focus in people with Tennis Motor Skill Learning, run by Guangzhou University at 4 sites in China.
The full registered description is in the About this study section and the official record.
Who may be eligible to take part?
The sponsor lists 5 inclusion and 4 exclusion criteria. Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening, so read the full criteria and contact a listed site.
Is this clinical trial currently recruiting?
The record says: finished, as of the sponsor's last update on 16 Sep 2026. Status can change between updates, so confirm with the study contact before making plans.
Where is the study taking place?
The record lists 4 sites in China. Whether a site is taking part right now should be confirmed with that site. See every site.
What are the possible benefits and risks?
They depend on the study and the treatment, and no study can promise a benefit. The study team explains the known risks during informed consent, before anyone joins; the record itself does not list them.
Are results available for this study?
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
How can a doctor refer a patient or contact the research team?
The record lists no contact. The official record names the sponsor, who can be asked directly. AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals.
What does the primary outcome measure?
Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12 (time frame: Baseline and Week 12). The study lists 2 primary outcomes in all. It is what the study was designed to measure, not a finding.
Where can I read the original study information?
Does a listing mean the treatment is approved or proven to work?
No. A listing means the study is registered. It does not show that the treatment is safe, works, or is approved by a regulator.
How often is this information updated?
AzTrials copies changed records from ClinicalTrials.gov every night and reloads the whole registry every week. The sponsor last updated this record on 16 Sep 2026.