An Open Label Trial Evaluating the Efficacy of Lacticaseibacillus Paracasei PS23 on Cognition

The Trail Making Task (TMT) is a neuropsychological test consisting of two parts that assesses executive function, visual attention, speed of processing, and cognitive flexibility. In Part A, the participant connects 25 numbered circles in sequential numerical order (1 to 25) as quickly and accurately as possible. TMT-B with sequential numbers in the Chinese characters substituting for the English alphabetical sequence, replaced numbers and letters of the TMT-B by circles and squares with numbers, modified the TMT-B with the Chinese zodiacs substituting for the English alphabet

The Stroop Color Words test (SCWT) was used to evaluate the dominant inhibition in executive function

The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) is a screening tool for depression in older adults (55+), consisting of a short, yes/no questionnaire about feelings over the past week. Scores range between 0 and 30 points. Higher scores indicate more severe depressive symptoms.

The Generalised Anxiety Disorder Assessment (GAD-7) is a seven-item instrument that is used to measure or assess the severity of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Each item asks the individual to rate the severity of his or her symptoms over the past two weeks. Response options include "not at all", "several days", "more than half the days" and "nearly every day"

The Quality of Life, Enjoyment, and Satisfaction Questionnaire-16 is a valid, reliable self-report instrument for assessing quality of life. The minimum raw score on the Q-LES-Q-16 is 14, and the maximum score is 70, higher scores mean a better outcome.

The PGIC consists of one item taken from the clinical global impression and adapted to the patient. The minimum total score possible is 1 and the maximum total score possible is 7. Higher values represent a worse outcome.

Recent, research studies have shown that plasma levels of p-Tau 217 are elevated in AD patients1,2. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that plasma p-Tau 217 levels are increased in the early stages of the AD continuum and are correlated with amyloid-PET positivity.

Plasma Aβ42/Aβ40 is sensitive to early cerebral amyloid accumulation and predicts risk of cognitive decline across the Alzheimer's disease spectrum

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in neuronal survival and growth, serves as a neurotransmitter modulator, and participates in neuronal plasticity, which is essential for learning and memory.

Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), an astrocytic cytoskeletal protein, can be measured in blood samples, and has been associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Neurofilament light chain (NfL) is a structural protein that normally helps support the shape and function of brain cells. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), brain cells are damaged, which causes the brain to shrink (atrophy), and symptoms such as declining cognition to occur.

Self-reported questionnaire consisting of 14 items assessing perceived decline in memory, attention, language, planning, orientation, and other cognitive domains. Responses are typically rated on a Likert scale (e.g., 0 = "Never" to 4 = "Very frequently"), with total scores ranging from 0 to 56-higher scores indicate greater subjective cognitive complaints.