Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSINCT07278024
Postbiotic Intervention on Vaginal Microbiota
A study testing postbiotics in people with Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSI, run by Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital. at 1 site in Taiwan.
Trial summary
This study investigates the effects of postbiotic intervention on vaginal microbiota in infertile patients. Using a pre-post test design, we will enroll 15 women aged 30-45 years with at least two IVF failures. Participants will receive postbiotic intervention for 8 weeks. Read more about this study
- Who is it for?
- Ages 30 to 45 years, women only
- Conditions the study is for
- Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSI
- What is being tested?
- postbiotics
- Could I receive a placebo?
- No, everyone receives an active treatment
- How many people
- 15 participants
- Where
- 1 siteTaiwan
- Study dates
- 1 Apr 2025to 30 Nov 2025
- Phase
- Interventional
- Are there results?
- None posted in the registry
Key requirements
Who can take part, as listed by the sponsor. Only the study team can confirm whether you are eligible, so take this list to your doctor.
- Ages 30 to 45 years
- Women only
- No healthy volunteers
- Adult
Who may be able to join
- (1) age 30-45 years;
- (2) body mass index 18-30 kg/m²;
- (3) history of ≥2 prior IVF treatment failures despite transfer of good-quality embryos;
- (4) planned FET cycle;
- (5) willingness to comply with the eight-week postbiotic intervention protocol
Who cannot join
- (1) active acute vaginal infection with symptomatic presentation;
- (2) antibiotic or probiotic use within the preceding three months;
- (3) congenital uterine anomalies including septate, bicornuate, or unicornuate uterus;
- (4) severe intrauterine adhesions (Asherman syndrome grade III-IV);
- (5) history of gynecologic malignancy;
- (6) known allergy or hypersensitivity to Lactobacillus-derived products;
- (7) current ongoing pregnancy
Trial locations and contacts
1 site in 1 country.
Taiwan1 site
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Kaohsiung City
About this study
Official title: To Investigate the Effect of Postbiotic Intervention on Vaginal Microbiota in Infertile Women
This study investigates the effects of postbiotic intervention on vaginal microbiota in infertile patients. Using a pre-post test design, we will enroll 15 women aged 30-45 years with at least two IVF failures. Participants will receive postbiotic intervention for 8 weeks. Vaginal secretion samples will be collected before and after treatment for 16S rRNA sequencing analysis to assess microbial composition, dominant species distribution, α-diversity index, and Lactobacillus content. Primary outcomes include changes in vaginal microbiota composition and diversity, alterations in Lactobacillus abundance, and pregnancy rates in subsequent IVF-FET cycles.
Read the detailed description
Background The demand for infertility treatment is increasing, with approximately 10-15% of couples of reproductive age experiencing varying degrees of fertility issues. Vaginal microbiota dysbiosis may be a significant factor contributing to infertility, and a healthy vaginal microbiota environment plays a crucial role in embryo implantation. This study aims to investigate the effects of postbiotic intervention on the vaginal microbiota of infertile patients by analyzing the vaginal microbiota before and after bacteriocin treatment to evaluate its effectiveness in improving the vaginal microbial environment.
Objective This study aims to investigate changes in vaginal microbiota before and after the use of postbiotic intervention.
Methods This study employs a pre-post test design, planning to enroll 15 women aged 30-45 years diagnosed with infertility with at least two IVF treatment failure. All subjects must be free from severe gynecological diseases, not using antibiotics or probiotics, and without acute vaginal infection symptoms. The study period is 8 weeks. Before intervention, baseline data collection will include complete medical history and infertility treatment records. During the first visit, vaginal secretion samples will be collected for vaginal microbiota assessment through 16S rRNA sequencing analysis, simultaneously measuring Lactobacillus content and microbial diversity. Subjects will then use postbiotic intervention continuously for 8 weeks. After treatment, a second sampling will be conducted to re-analyze the vaginal microbiota. The primary outcome measures include changes in microbial composition before and after use, including dominant species distribution, α-diversity index, and changes in Lactobacillus content. All specimens will be collected, transported, and preserved following standard operating procedures to ensure testing quality. Research data will be analyzed using paired sample statistical methods to assess pre-post treatment differences, with significance level set at p<0.05.
Outcome
- Compare differences in vaginal microbiota before and after using postbiotic intervention.
- Compare differences in taxonomic abundance before and after using postbiotic intervention.
- Check pregnancy rate of IVF-FET cycle after postbiotic intervention use
- Conditions
- Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSI
- Being tested
- postbiotics
- Keywords
- vaginal microbiome, postbiotics, antimicrobial peptides, infertility, assisted reproductive technology, in vitro fertilization
- Medical subject headings
- Infertility
What participants receive
What participants receive. In a randomised study each person is assigned to one group by chance.
postbioticsOther
Participants will self-administer postbiotic intervention via intravaginal suppositories containing purified bacteriocin peptides . The intervention consists of one suppository administered intravaginally at bedtime, once daily for 8 consecutive weeks (56 days total). Each suppository contains a standardized concentration of bacteriocins extracted from Lactobacillus strains.
| Study group | Role | What they receive |
|---|---|---|
| postbiotics | Experimental | Not described Receives: Other: postbiotics |
What is being measured
The primary outcome is the main question the study is designed to answer.
Vaginal microbiome composition (genus level)
Changes in vaginal bacterial community structure assessed through 16S rRNA gene sequencing of vaginal secretion samples collected at baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)
Measured: Baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)
Secondary outcomes (1)
Taxonomic abundance (%)
Quantitative measurement of the relative proportions of bacterial taxa at different taxonomic levels (phylum, genus, and species) in vaginal samples before and after bacteriocin treatment. Results will report the percentage abundance of major bacterial groups.
Measured: Baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)
Timeline
From the start of the study to its completion; the mark is today. Estimated dates are the sponsor’s plan.
- First posted11 Dec 2025
- Study start1 Apr 2025
- Primary completion31 Jul 2025
- Study completion30 Nov 2025
Resources
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govThe registry entry this page is built from, with its full change history.
- Publications (13)Papers the sponsor has linked to this study.
- Other trials for Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSIStudies of the same condition, open and under way.
- What the trial phases meanHow a treatment moves from first tests in people to approval.
More details
For doctors and researchers: how the study is designed, who runs it, and its registry IDs.
Study design
- Study type
- Interventional
- Phase
- Phase N/A
- Primary purpose
- Treatment
- Allocation
- Not applicable
- Intervention model
- Single group
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Enrolment
- 15 participants (actual)
Sponsor and investigators
- Lead sponsor
- Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital.
- Sponsor type
- University, hospital or other
- Responsible party
- Principal investigator, Li-Te Lin, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital.
IDs, dates and publications
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07278024
- Sponsor's protocol ID
- KSVGH25-CT1-18
- Status last verified
- Nov 2025
- First submitted
- 30 Nov 2025
- Last updated
- 11 Dec 2025
- Results posted
- No
- FDA-regulated drug
- No
- FDA-regulated device
- No
- Individual data sharing
- No
Publications
Kumar A, Green KM, Rawat M. A Comprehensive Overview of Postbiotics with a Special Focus on Discovery Techniques and Clinical Applications. Foods. 2024 Sep 17;13(18):2937. doi: 10.3390/foods13182937.
PubMed 39335866Vinderola G, Sanders ME, Salminen S. The Concept of Postbiotics. Foods. 2022 Apr 8;11(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/foods11081077.
PubMed 35454664Salminen S, Collado MC, Endo A, Hill C, Lebeer S, Quigley EMM, Sanders ME, Shamir R, Swann JR, Szajewska H, Vinderola G. The International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of postbiotics. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021 Sep;18(9):649-667. doi: 10.1038/s41575-021-00440-6. Epub 2021 May 4.
PubMed 33948025Moreno I, Garcia-Grau I, Perez-Villaroya D, Gonzalez-Monfort M, Bahceci M, Barrionuevo MJ, Taguchi S, Puente E, Dimattina M, Lim MW, Meneghini G, Aubuchon M, Leondires M, Izquierdo A, Perez-Olgiati M, Chavez A, Seethram K, Bau D, Gomez C, Valbuena D, Vilella F, Simon C. Endometrial microbiota composition is associated with reproductive outcome in infertile patients. Microbiome. 2022 Jan 4;10(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s40168-021-01184-w.
PubMed 34980280Zhao H, Wang C, Narsing Rao MP, Rafiq M, Luo G, Li S, Kang Y-Q. Effects of vaginal microbiota on in vitro fertilization outcomes in women with different infertility causes. Microbiol Spectr. 2025 Mar 4;13(3):e0125524. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.01255-24. Epub 2025 Jan 27.
PubMed 39868783Karaer A, Dogan B, Gunal S, Tuncay G, Arda Duz S, Unver T, Tecellioglu N. The vaginal microbiota composition of women undergoing assisted reproduction: a prospective cohort study. BJOG. 2021 Dec;128(13):2101-2109. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.16782. Epub 2021 Jun 20.
PubMed 34053157Tian Q, Jin S, Zhang G, Liu Y, Liu J, Tang X, Li Y, Liu J, Liu Y, Wang Z. Assessing vaginal microbiome through Vaginal Microecology Evaluation System as a predictor for in vitro fertilization outcomes: a retrospective study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2024 Jul 9;15:1380187. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1380187. eCollection 2024.
PubMed 39045277Su W, Gong C, Zhong H, Yang H, Chen Y, Wu X, Jin J, Xi H, Zhao J. Vaginal and endometrial microbiome dysbiosis associated with adverse embryo transfer outcomes. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2024 Aug 28;22(1):111. doi: 10.1186/s12958-024-01274-y.
PubMed 39198832Vainamo S, Saqib S, Kalliala I, Kervinen K, Luiro K, Niinimaki M, Halttunen-Nieminen M, Virtanen S, Nieminen P, Salonen A, Holster T. Longitudinal analysis of vaginal microbiota during IVF fresh embryo transfer and in early pregnancy. Microbiol Spectr. 2023 Dec 12;11(6):e0165023. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.01650-23. Epub 2023 Oct 26.
PubMed 37882794Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN. The Human Microbiome during Bacterial Vaginosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016 Apr;29(2):223-38. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00075-15.
PubMed 26864580Gao X, Louwers YV, Laven JSE, Schoenmakers S. Clinical Relevance of Vaginal and Endometrial Microbiome Investigation in Women with Repeated Implantation Failure and Recurrent Pregnancy Loss. Int J Mol Sci. 2024 Jan 3;25(1):622. doi: 10.3390/ijms25010622.
PubMed 38203793Koedooder R, Singer M, Schoenmakers S, Savelkoul PHM, Morre SA, de Jonge JD, Poort L, Cuypers WJSS, Beckers NGM, Broekmans FJM, Cohlen BJ, den Hartog JE, Fleischer K, Lambalk CB, Smeenk JMJS, Budding AE, Laven JSE. The vaginal microbiome as a predictor for outcome of in vitro fertilization with or without intracytoplasmic sperm injection: a prospective study. Hum Reprod. 2019 Jun 4;34(6):1042-1054. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dez065.
PubMed 31119299Moreno I, Codoner FM, Vilella F, Valbuena D, Martinez-Blanch JF, Jimenez-Almazan J, Alonso R, Alama P, Remohi J, Pellicer A, Ramon D, Simon C. Evidence that the endometrial microbiota has an effect on implantation success or failure. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2016 Dec;215(6):684-703. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2016.09.075. Epub 2016 Oct 4.
PubMed 27717732
Study at a glance
From the registry record, last updated by the sponsor on 11 Dec 2025. Recruitment status is as the sponsor reported it: confirm with the study team.
- Official title
- To Investigate the Effect of Postbiotic Intervention on Vaginal Microbiota in Infertile Women
- ClinicalTrials.gov ID
- NCT07278024
- Acronym / sponsor ID
- KSVGH25-CT1-18
- Conditions
- Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSI
- Keywords
- vaginal microbiome, postbiotics, antimicrobial peptides, infertility, assisted reproductive technology, in vitro fertilization
- Study type
- Interventional
- Recruitment status
- Completed
- Enrolment
- 15 participants (actual)
- Lead sponsor
- Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital.University, hospital or other
- Study start
- 1 Apr 2025 (actual)
- Primary completion
- 31 Jul 2025 (actual)
- Study completion
- 30 Nov 2025 (actual)
- First posted
- 11 Dec 2025 (actual)
- Results
- Not posted in the source record
Clinical summary
The research question as the sponsor registered it. This describes what the study plans to test, not what it found.
This study investigates the effects of postbiotic intervention on vaginal microbiota in infertile patients. Using a pre-post test design, we will enroll 15 women aged 30-45 years with at least two IVF failures. Participants will receive postbiotic intervention for 8 weeks. Vaginal secretion samples will be collected before and after treatment for 16S rRNA sequencing analysis to assess microbial composition, dominant species distribution, α-diversity index, and Lactobacillus content. Primary outcomes include changes in vaginal microbiota composition and diversity, alterations in Lactobacillus abundance, and pregnancy rates in subsequent IVF-FET cycles.
Detailed description
Background The demand for infertility treatment is increasing, with approximately 10-15% of couples of reproductive age experiencing varying degrees of fertility issues. Vaginal microbiota dysbiosis may be a significant factor contributing to infertility, and a healthy vaginal microbiota environment plays a crucial role in embryo implantation. This study aims to investigate the effects of postbiotic intervention on the vaginal microbiota of infertile patients by analyzing the vaginal microbiota before and after bacteriocin treatment to evaluate its effectiveness in improving the vaginal microbial environment.
Objective This study aims to investigate changes in vaginal microbiota before and after the use of postbiotic intervention.
Methods This study employs a pre-post test design, planning to enroll 15 women aged 30-45 years diagnosed with infertility with at least two IVF treatment failure. All subjects must be free from severe gynecological diseases, not using antibiotics or probiotics, and without acute vaginal infection symptoms. The study period is 8 weeks. Before intervention, baseline data collection will include complete medical history and infertility treatment records. During the first visit, vaginal secretion samples will be collected for vaginal microbiota assessment through 16S rRNA sequencing analysis, simultaneously measuring Lactobacillus content and microbial diversity. Subjects will then use postbiotic intervention continuously for 8 weeks. After treatment, a second sampling will be conducted to re-analyze the vaginal microbiota. The primary outcome measures include changes in microbial composition before and after use, including dominant species distribution, α-diversity index, and changes in Lactobacillus content. All specimens will be collected, transported, and preserved following standard operating procedures to ensure testing quality. Research data will be analyzed using paired sample statistical methods to assess pre-post treatment differences, with significance level set at p<0.05.
Outcome
- Compare differences in vaginal microbiota before and after using postbiotic intervention.
- Compare differences in taxonomic abundance before and after using postbiotic intervention.
- Check pregnancy rate of IVF-FET cycle after postbiotic intervention use
Study design
- Primary purpose
- Treatment
- Allocation
- Not applicable
- Intervention model
- Single group
- Masking
- None (open label)
- Number of arms
- 1
| Arm | Type | Receives |
|---|---|---|
| postbiotics | Experimental | Other: postbiotics |
Who may qualify
- Ages
- 30 to 45 years
- Sex
- Female only
- Healthy volunteers
- Not accepted
- Age groups
- Adult
Key inclusion criteria (5 listed)
- (1) age 30-45 years;
- (2) body mass index 18-30 kg/m²;
- (3) history of ≥2 prior IVF treatment failures despite transfer of good-quality embryos;
- (4) planned FET cycle;
- (5) willingness to comply with the eight-week postbiotic intervention protocol
Key exclusion criteria (7 listed)
- (1) active acute vaginal infection with symptomatic presentation;
- (2) antibiotic or probiotic use within the preceding three months;
- (3) congenital uterine anomalies including septate, bicornuate, or unicornuate uterus;
- (4) severe intrauterine adhesions (Asherman syndrome grade III-IV);
- (5) history of gynecologic malignancy;
Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening; this overview does not establish that a patient qualifies. Full inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Interventions
| Intervention | Type | Arms |
|---|---|---|
| postbioticsParticipants will self-administer postbiotic intervention via intravaginal suppositories containing purified bacteriocin peptides . The intervention consists of one suppository administered intravaginally at bedtime, once daily for 8 consecutive weeks (56 days total). Each suppository contains a standardized concentration of bacteriocins extracted from Lactobacillus strains. | Other | postbiotics |
Primary outcome
Vaginal microbiome composition (genus level)
Time frame: Baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)
Changes in vaginal bacterial community structure assessed through 16S rRNA gene sequencing of vaginal secretion samples collected at baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)
1 secondary outcome
Taxonomic abundance (%)
Time frame: Baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)
Results and safety
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
Research links
- Official record on ClinicalTrials.govLast updated by the sponsor 11 Dec 2025.
- Background: PubMed 39335866Kumar A, Green KM, Rawat M. A Comprehensive Overview of Postbiotics with a Special Focus on Discovery Techniques and Clinical Applications. Foods. 2024 Sep 17;13(18):2937. doi: 10.3390/foods13182937.
- Background: PubMed 35454664Vinderola G, Sanders ME, Salminen S. The Concept of Postbiotics. Foods. 2022 Apr 8;11(8):1077. doi: 10.3390/foods11081077.
- Background: PubMed 33948025Salminen S, Collado MC, Endo A, Hill C, Lebeer S, Quigley EMM, Sanders ME, Shamir R, Swann JR, Szajewska H, Vinderola G. The International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of postbiotics. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2021 Sep;18(9):649-667. doi: 10.1038/s41575-021-00440-6. Epub 2021 May 4.
- Background: PubMed 34980280Moreno I, Garcia-Grau I, Perez-Villaroya D, Gonzalez-Monfort M, Bahceci M, Barrionuevo MJ, Taguchi S, Puente E, Dimattina M, Lim MW, Meneghini G, Aubuchon M, Leondires M, Izquierdo A, Perez-Olgiati M, Chavez A, Seethram K, Bau D, Gomez C, Valbuena D, Vilella F, Simon C. Endometrial microbiota composition is associated with reproductive outcome in infertile patients. Microbiome. 2022 Jan 4;10(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s40168-021-01184-w.
- Background: PubMed 39868783Zhao H, Wang C, Narsing Rao MP, Rafiq M, Luo G, Li S, Kang Y-Q. Effects of vaginal microbiota on in vitro fertilization outcomes in women with different infertility causes. Microbiol Spectr. 2025 Mar 4;13(3):e0125524. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.01255-24. Epub 2025 Jan 27.
- Background: PubMed 34053157Karaer A, Dogan B, Gunal S, Tuncay G, Arda Duz S, Unver T, Tecellioglu N. The vaginal microbiota composition of women undergoing assisted reproduction: a prospective cohort study. BJOG. 2021 Dec;128(13):2101-2109. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.16782. Epub 2021 Jun 20.
- Background: PubMed 39045277Tian Q, Jin S, Zhang G, Liu Y, Liu J, Tang X, Li Y, Liu J, Liu Y, Wang Z. Assessing vaginal microbiome through Vaginal Microecology Evaluation System as a predictor for in vitro fertilization outcomes: a retrospective study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2024 Jul 9;15:1380187. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1380187. eCollection 2024.
- Background: PubMed 39198832Su W, Gong C, Zhong H, Yang H, Chen Y, Wu X, Jin J, Xi H, Zhao J. Vaginal and endometrial microbiome dysbiosis associated with adverse embryo transfer outcomes. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2024 Aug 28;22(1):111. doi: 10.1186/s12958-024-01274-y.
- Background: PubMed 37882794Vainamo S, Saqib S, Kalliala I, Kervinen K, Luiro K, Niinimaki M, Halttunen-Nieminen M, Virtanen S, Nieminen P, Salonen A, Holster T. Longitudinal analysis of vaginal microbiota during IVF fresh embryo transfer and in early pregnancy. Microbiol Spectr. 2023 Dec 12;11(6):e0165023. doi: 10.1128/spectrum.01650-23. Epub 2023 Oct 26.
- Background: PubMed 26864580Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN. The Human Microbiome during Bacterial Vaginosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016 Apr;29(2):223-38. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00075-15.
- Background: PubMed 38203793Gao X, Louwers YV, Laven JSE, Schoenmakers S. Clinical Relevance of Vaginal and Endometrial Microbiome Investigation in Women with Repeated Implantation Failure and Recurrent Pregnancy Loss. Int J Mol Sci. 2024 Jan 3;25(1):622. doi: 10.3390/ijms25010622.
- Background: PubMed 31119299Koedooder R, Singer M, Schoenmakers S, Savelkoul PHM, Morre SA, de Jonge JD, Poort L, Cuypers WJSS, Beckers NGM, Broekmans FJM, Cohlen BJ, den Hartog JE, Fleischer K, Lambalk CB, Smeenk JMJS, Budding AE, Laven JSE. The vaginal microbiome as a predictor for outcome of in vitro fertilization with or without intracytoplasmic sperm injection: a prospective study. Hum Reprod. 2019 Jun 4;34(6):1042-1054. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dez065.
- Individual participant dataSharing planned: No
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Referral and contact
AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals. Contact the study team or a site listed below; they decide who can take part. This study is not recruiting at the moment.
The record lists no contact. Use the official record to reach the sponsor.
1 site in 1 country: see every site and its status.
Questions about this trial
What is this clinical trial studying?
A study testing postbiotics in people with Infertile Women Undergoing IVF or ICSI, run by Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital. at 1 site in Taiwan.
The full registered description is in the About this study section and the official record.
Who may be eligible to take part?
The sponsor lists 5 inclusion and 7 exclusion criteria. Eligibility is decided by the study team after screening, so read the full criteria and contact a listed site.
Is this clinical trial currently recruiting?
The record says: finished, as of the sponsor's last update on 11 Dec 2025. Status can change between updates, so confirm with the study contact before making plans.
Where is the study taking place?
The record lists 1 site in Taiwan. Whether a site is taking part right now should be confirmed with that site. See every site.
What are the possible benefits and risks?
They depend on the study and the treatment, and no study can promise a benefit. The study team explains the known risks during informed consent, before anyone joins; the record itself does not list them.
Are results available for this study?
The study is completed, but results are not available in the source record. That does not mean the treatment did or did not work.
How can a doctor refer a patient or contact the research team?
The record lists no contact. The official record names the sponsor, who can be asked directly. AzTrials does not enrol participants or take referrals.
What does the primary outcome measure?
Vaginal microbiome composition (genus level) (time frame: Baseline (Week 0) and post-intervention (Week 8)). It is what the study was designed to measure, not a finding.
Where can I read the original study information?
On the ClinicalTrials.gov record for NCT07278024, which also lists 13 linked publications.
Does a listing mean the treatment is approved or proven to work?
No. A listing means the study is registered. It does not show that the treatment is safe, works, or is approved by a regulator.
How often is this information updated?
AzTrials copies changed records from ClinicalTrials.gov every night and reloads the whole registry every week. The sponsor last updated this record on 11 Dec 2025.