Characterisation of Functional and Cognitive Responses Following Olfactory Stimulation and/or Functional Training in Older Adults.

Olfactory performance will be assessed using the Sniffin' Sticks Test (SST), providing a composite Threshold, Discrimination, and Identification (TDI) score. Odorants will be presented using CE-marked pen devices approximately 2 cm in front of both nostrils for 2 seconds. The Sniffin Sticks Score ranges from 0 (worst) to 48 (best). Normative values: less than or equal 15 = Functional Anosmia; 16 - 30 = Hyposmia; 31 - 48 = Normosmia.

Physical Function: Assessed using the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB), which combines balance, gait velocity, and leg strength as a single score on a 0 (worst) to 12 (best scale).

Mini-Cog (5-point abreviated spanish version, the total score combines word recall (3 points) and a clock drawing task (2 points).

Measurment of quality of life using EQ5D-3L, the patients indicate their health state by choosing one level for each of the five dimensions, creating a 5-digit code representing 243 possible health states. EQ VAS, includes a vertical Visual Analogue Scale (0-100) where patients rate their self-rated health, with 100 being the "best imaginable health state". Utility. The responses can be converted into a single index value (utility score) using country-specific valuation sets, where 1 represents full health and 0 represents death.

Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) ranges from normal nutritional status (24-30points), risk of malnutrition (17-23.5points), or malnourished (<17points).

Barthel Index of independence during activities of daily living (ADLs) ranges from 0 (severe functional dependence) to 100 (functional independence).

Blood samples (10-20 mL) will be collected alongside routine clinical testing using Vacutainer tubes (EDTA, citrate, or serum tubes as appropriate). Samples will be left upright for 10 minutes and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes to obtain serum and plasma for analysis. Aliquots will be stored at -80°C for future specialised analyses, including flow cytometry. Remaining samples will be stored in the Navarrabiomed Biobank for future research, subject to Ethics Committee approval.

Yesavage Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS-15, short form) is a validated screening tool designed to detect and assess depresive symtoms specifically in older adults. The scale ranges from 0 (best) to 15 (worst). The reference scoring for the Short Form (GDS-15) is: 0-5 = Normal; 6-9 = Mild or posible Depression; >9 = Established/Severe Depression.

Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) measures cognitive processing speed, attention, and memory by having participants pair symbols with numbers (1-9) using a key, with a maximum score of 110-120 over 90 seconds. A 4-point difference in SDMT scores is considered clinically meaningful, often used to detect cognitive dysfunction.

Trail Making Test Part A is scored by measuring the total time in seconds required to connect 25 numbered circles (an average completion time is 29 seconds, with >78 seconds often indicating cognitive impairment - Scores are often adjusted based on age, education, and user-specific norms).

Assessed using the Cumulative Illness Rating Scale for Geriatrics (CIRS-G) alongside ICD-10 classification provides a robust, comprehensive, and validated method for assessing multicomorbidity in older adults, addressing both the structural burden of disease and its functional severity. Total scores can range from 0 to 64. The CIRS-G Severity Index (total score divided by the number of organ systems involved) provides an estimate of the overall severity of dysfunction. System Coverage rates 14 organ systems (e.g., cardiac, vascular, respiratory, psychiatric) on a severity scale from 0 (no problem) to 4 (Extremely severe).

Handgrip strength and maximal concentric strength (leg press, chest press, knee extension, seated row machine). Changes in "1RM", defined as the maximum resistance/load a person can move in one repetition of an exercise will be assessed. These values are mesured in Kilograms and results are individualized.

Number and type of medications will be recorded. Polypharmacy will be defined as the use of ≥5 medications. Psychotropic drug use and medications related to comorbid or intercurrent conditions (e.g., antibiotics) will also be documented

Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) will be measured as a non-invasive biomarker of airway inflammation and as a potential indicator of muscle function, inflammatory status, frailty, and sarcopenia. Measurements will be performed using a CE-marked device currently used in routine clinical practice for asthma management. The study aims to evaluate its utility for monitoring intervention effects and for early diagnosis, prognosis, and follow-up of frailty and cognitive decline.